Myth and Thomas Jefferson Essay

Essay: Topic: Compare and Contrast â€Å"Thomas Jefferson’s first inaugural address† (Chapter 15 in Readings in United States History) and â€Å"Hope and Heritage: Myth and Thomas Jefferson†, (Chapter 14 in Readings in United States History) â€Å"Do you want to know who you are? Don’t ask. Act! Action will delineate and define you.† (By Thomas Jefferson). Thomas Jefferson, who was born on April 13 1743 and died on July 4 1826, was the son of a wealthy uneducated planter from Western Virginia. He was the first to go to College in his family and he attended the College of William and Mary. He was dreaming about a society where men would be judged by what they have accomplished and by their taste .He was the third president of the United States of America (From 1801 to 1809) and also the first United States Secretary of State (From 1790 to 1793 ).He was much more: founder of the University of Virginia. Philosopher, cofounder of the oldest political party in the nation, coauthor of the Declaration of Independence. In this essay, we are going to compare and contrast â€Å"Thomas Jefferson’s first inaugural address† (Chapter 15 in Readings in United States History) and â€Å"Hope and Heritage: Myth and Thomas Jefferson†, (Chapter 14 in Readings in United States History). In his book â€Å"The Jefferson image in the American Mind (1960), the writer Merrill Peterson is basically showing how American’s people see Thomas Jefferson. They have always seen him as a particular man, a symbol for the United States of America .Therefore, many people took their time to find out something wrong about that man. The man who started criticizing him as probably the writer Leonard Levy’s in his Book â€Å"Jefferson and Civil Liberties: The Darker Side†. In Chapter 14 â€Å"Hope and Heritage: Myth and Thomas Jefferson†, Gordon Wood really talks about Jefferson’s personal life. Thomas Jefferson is described as someone who had passion for partisan persecution, someone who didn’t care about the civil liberties,  someone who thought he was morally perfect and used to judge people around him. In the chapter, they are comparing him to his friend James Madison. Thomas Jefferson wasn’t thinking about the country like Madison when he was taking decisions. While taking his decisions, he was mostly concerned about what his French friends would think of it than the needs of the American population. The main portion of Jefferson’s life, was his fight to abolish slavery. As it is written in this chapter, Thomas Jefferson hated slavery. He worked really hard to eradicate it in New Western territories. But apparently, he was never able to set all his slaves free. Many recent historians claimed that Jefferson’s acting toward Black people was very disgusting, revolting. Especially for someone who claimed that he wanted to eradicate slavery. During his life, he wanted to make sure that the eradication of slavery will be accompanied by the deportation of Back people of the country. For him, Black people living in a white’s man America was totally unbearable. He was â€Å"Racist†. In his mind, Black men were extremely inferior to White Not only in Body but also in mind. People were surprised to see hear him talk about freedom and control Black slaves at the same time. Most people started to think that he was a hypocrite. In 1802, James Callender, a political pamphleteer and journalist pointed the fat that Tomas Jefferson maintained Sally Hemings a Black Slave as a mistress and fathered her with various children. This was barely believable because everybody knew him as a man who always suppressed his passions. In addition to that, Thomas Jefferson was a man of the eighteenth century, an intelligent man, conventional, and enlightened. But he also had his own weaknesses. Jefferson was fully part of the Enlightenment in the United States of America. His desire to know everything and his open-minded character put him on the top of the American Enlightenment. Unlike in Chapter 14 (Hope and Heritage: Myth and Thomas Jefferson), Chapter 15 (First Inaugural Address, 1801) is basically Thomas Jefferson’s speech which marks the abolition of one of the worst period in the United States of America. The First Inaugural Address of Thomas Jefferson is lionizing the most important election in the history as Thomas Jefferson was succeeding to John Adams as president. During 1790s, some divisions were created between the Federalists (Hamilton and Adams) and the Republicans (Jefferson and Madison) due to the opposition to Hamilton’s financial policies and polemics over foreign policy. Thomas Jefferson was  the first President to take office in the new capital city of Washington. In his speech, Thomas Jefferson says â€Å"Every difference of opinion is not a difference of principle. We have called by different names brethren of the same principle. We are all Republicans, we are all Federalists.† He is basically telling his Fellow-Citizens that even though there are some differences, both Federalists and Republicans are serving the same constitution and following the same principles. What is different is the way each of them interprets and apply it. He is calling for Union. Jefferson wants a government when no one will injure another; where each citizen will work. In his partisanship, the First Inaugural of Jefferson mingles the American past of Washington and some heroes into his different principles .By making his party’s victory a victory for all the country, the speech sets the standard for inaugural addresses. In Conclusion, we were ask to compare and contrast â€Å"Thomas Jefferson’s Inaugural Address† (Chapter 15 in Readings of the United States History) and â€Å"Hope and Heritage: Myth and Thomas Jefferson† (Chapter 14 in Readings of the United States History).We can undoubtedly say that Thomas Jefferson was a great Leader. It is therefore all the more important to see and distinguish where he had success and also where he failed. Whenever something is great, people will always try to find out the Bad in it and that’s what happened to Thomas Jefferson. But it doesn’t change anything to what he has accomplished for the United States of America. Till today, no other figure in the American history as reached that standard.

Characteristics of Romanticism Essay

1. Medievalism – looking on the past to a simpler lifestyle (the good ole days). †Written in the Close of Spring† by Charlotte Smith 2. Orientalism – (exotic locales) places that everyday people would not venture. Mystery – emotional stimulus. 3. Primitivism – belief that man was born inherently good. (Noble Savage – writing by people of primitive cultures – Africa, Native American) Society makes them bad. 4. Progress – Romantics were not against progress but feared the effects on society. Man could create a better world without materialism. 5. Anti-intellectualism – belief that everything is just not rational. †The Tables Turned† by William Wordsworth 6. Sentimentalism – (emotions) very affected by what they see. Raw formality. 7. Humanitarism – believed that all men were created equal and that you should help others. 8. Democracy – supporters of the French revolution until it became violent. Agreed with the civil American revolution, used portage to fight for reform. 9. Originality – New poetic formats and genres. 10. Diversity – Authors wrote books and music, but did not write in one style. Mastered the art of writing. 11. Confessionalism – art is a confession of the inner soul. Characters confess and express how they feel. 12. Purgative Purpose of Art – authors believed their writings were cleansing their souls. †Lines Composed a Few Miles away from Tintern Abbey† by William Wordsworth 13. Protest and Dissent – Original Protesters ills of society and the church. Not all authors of this era believed in this. †Lines Written in Early Spring† by William Wordsworth 14. A love of the wild and picturesque – Nature is almost a character in novels. Nature inspires creativity. †Pastoral Poesy† by John Clare

Cold War History Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Cold War History - Research Paper Example The world quickly turned into polarized and bipolar. Fourth, two superpowers appeared in the world with military and economic power which gave them a significant advantage over the others. Plus, the interests of Western countries in different parts of the globe began to come up against the interests of the Soviet Union. The new political conditions, formed after World War II, were quickly understood by Churchill, who announced the new realia and called them the Cold War1. The defeat of such powerful monsters as Germany and Japan testified that the balance of power in the world was changed. The Allied forces of the Four Powers - the Soviet Union, the United States, Britain and France occupied the territory of Germany and Austria in accordance with the decisions of the Potsdam Conference. The political influence of the Soviet Union extended to Poland, part of Germany, occupied by Soviet forces, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia and Romania. Though the country was exhausted by war, it badly needed to recover economic and human resources, it still had the most powerful and experienced army of about 11 million soldiers2. On the other hand, the U.S. became the dominant global power after the Second World War, which has enormous economic, air, sea and nuclear power. As a result of the effective strategy the United States increased the gross national product by 1.7 times (excluding inflation) during the war and lost only 300 thousand soldiers. The U.S. dollar became the most stable currency and New York - the largest financial market in the world. The country quickly overcame inflation, raised wages and had the world’s highest productivity. Economic power of the United States, its industrial and financial expansion, contributed to the fact that the United States got the role of global hegemon3. Growing distrust among the former Allies led to the fact that the countries of Western Europe and the U.S. joined forces against the USSR. The Soviet Union, i n an effort to protect its borders, created a kind of a buffer of the countries which formed pro-Soviet government after the war. Thus, the world was divided into two camps: capitalist and socialist. Both established the so-called systems of collective security - military blocs. On 4 April 1949 the North Atlantic Treaty was signed and the world saw a new military organization - NATO, which included the U.S., Canada and Western Europe. In May, 1955, the Warsaw Pact was signed as a countermeasure. It included (that year) Albania (later, in 1968, it denounced the pact), Bulgaria, Hungary, East Germany, Poland, Romania, USSR, Czechoslovakia. The polarization of the world was over4. The created coalitions, led by their leaders, began to struggle for influence in third world countries. One of the most memorable results of the Cold War is Arms Race Its start was related to atomic weapons. In 1945 the United States was the only nuclear power in the world. Hiroshima and Nagasaki got â€Å"i nformed† about that. That strategic superiority fostered the U.S. military begin to build a variety of plans of pre-emptive strikes on the Soviet Union. But the American monopoly on nuclear weapons remained only four years. In 1949 the USSR tested its first atomic bomb. This event was a real shock to the Western world and an important milestone of the Cold War.

Analyse critically how research and practice developments can be Essay - 1

Analyse critically how research and practice developments can be disseminated to enhance the quality of the student learning exp - Essay Example Various health care stakeholders have been funding research studies on various issues surrounding the nursing practices. All this is meant to achieve the much touted quality healthcare delivery in the society. Such research and practices need to be communicated to the nursing professionals to boost their performance. Acquisition of information is one of the greatest challenges that affect many nurses (Gerrish & Lacey, 2010, 490). It is therefore important that they are given sound theoretical training that is result oriented if translated to practical applications in the field. Dissemination of information during learning among the nurses significantly explain their future performance in the field when assigned duties. It is therefore imperative that the methods of imparting such concepts are taken through critical assessment and all the factors taken into consideration. Information cost is one of the most important aspects of high standard performance of the leaners when they come i nto real life situation (Bergin, 2013, pg 2000). One of the most effective ways of ensuring that there is penetration of the ideas in learners is engaging them in the research study and requesting for observable findings. Learning is more effective when observation is done since pictures and objects seen makes more sense than what is merely said. It is proper that learning is backed up with a lot of drawing diagrams so that it would stick in the brain of the students in such a way that they are able to relate the theoretical work with the real life work (Exley & Dennick, 2009, 221). Nursing requires high accuracy since it deals in human life and therefore should be practice oriented so that not a single concept is missed as this could cost a lot (Power, 2008, 21-5). Creation of a motivating and engaging learning environment is one of the most appropriate approaches that can be applied in improving the nursing students’ mastery of the concepts and how they relate to the real l ife clinical practice. This may be achieved by involving the students in group assignments where they will brainstorm. Group work assignment may also be extended to research study where the students are given a given topic which they breakdown and undertake independent research before presenting as group to share their experiences. It is important for the tutors and nursing instructors to emphasize on the significance, relevance and integration of theoretical work and the knowledge with the professional practice with the aim of developing solutions to real life global health issues. It is advisable by the NMC 2010 nursing students spend more than 50% of their time undertaking practical. This may sink better by giving individual illustration of skills that are applicable in a specific topic so that the learners can create a picture of the possible practical scene and take deeper interest in the discipline (Keele, 2011, 34-56). It is important to ensure that the research covers variou s social problems that pertains to health challenges in the society so that the can begin to understand the directions of what they are studying and relate this with some of the experiences they have had as victims and not as nurses (Masters, 2009, 22). It is advisable that the syllabus structure of the nursing discipline need to put emphasis on periodic field work which will involve interactive session of the students with patients and other clinicians in healthcare facilities (finkelman & kenner, 2013, 135). This is as part of induction to the theory and its

Annotated Bibliography on Coral Bleeching Research Paper

Annotated Bibliography on Coral Bleeching - Research Paper Example Authors concluded that environmental stressors tend to be the primary triggers leading to bleaching. They also suggested that the role that bacteria play in relation to bleaching tends to be that of opportunistic colonization. Therefore, bacteria are not the primary cause of coral bleaching. Anthony, K. N., Hoogenboom, M. O., Maynard, J. A., Grottoli, A. G., & Middlebrook, R. (2009). Energetics Approach to Predicting Mortality Risk from Environmental Stress: A Case Study of Coral Bleaching. Functional Ecology, 23(3), 539-550. There is a high probability of an increase in frequency and severity of coral bleaching events because of climatic changes. According to the article, this is a significant threat to most of the corals ecosystem in various parts of the world. The authors demonstrate a survey they conducted on two Indo-pacific coral species in order to show the coral mortality risks and recovery when bleaching events occurs. Moreover, the authors demonstrate the possibility of curbing coral bleaching through establishing the bleaching rate and duration. Authors conclude that predicting coral mortality rate is a significant achievement to the allocation and management of resources when trying to increase recovery time during bleaching events. Bourne, D., Iida, Y., Uthicke, S., & Smith-Keune, C. (2008). Changes in coral-associated microbial communities during a bleaching event. ISME Journal: Multidisciplinary Journal Of Microbial Ecology, 2(4), 350-363. The article mainly focuses on authors’ study that demonstrates various changes that occur in coral-associated bacteria environments. The article demonstrates that even though increase in sea temperature poses as the main cause of coral bleaching, understanding of various coral-associated communities may help in reducing severe bleaching events. The article also demonstrates a research conducted by the authors that indicates microbial associations

Foreign Market Entry and Diversification Research Paper - 1

Foreign Market Entry and Diversification - Research Paper Example The aim of diversifying the business is to increase the stock prices and reduce the risks, which may arise in the new market; thus achieving effective business competitive advantage. The strategy for business diversification will be expanding the operation of the company through adding new markets, new products and services of different types and adding production stages to the existing business. The catalyst for achieving these strategies is taking into consideration the mission and vision of the business; thus grasping the opportunities when presented in order to move toward profitable business. The aim of this diversification strategy is to allow the business to enter business lines, which are dissimilar from the presented business operations. Some entrepreneurs believes that diversification is achievable through a natural advancement that is extending the new brands by offering customers a variety of products; thus meeting their demanding needs (Tielmann, 2010). However, an effec tive diversification strategy is capitalizing the core competence of the company and the strengths of flourishing brands to enable the business perform successfully into the new markets. The synergies may be gained from the diversified activity through incorporating the corporate level strategic decisions together with the diversified activity. ... Therefore, the company can achieve synergy from diversified activity through creating more value to diversified products. The corporate can also enter into the diversified areas where corporation key resources and capabilities can be shared and leveraged in order to improve organizational performance. The synergies can come from both horizontal and vertical relationships from varied business units. The company can take into considerations the core competencies by leveraging competencies and shared activities in order to fuel the new business growth. Before the LLC Company enters into the foreign market, they should first analyze the environmental conditions of the foreign markets. They can employ effective models for analyzing the country’s attractiveness and the competitive strength of the business. Therefore, the foreign markets where the LLC Company can enter are the overseas markets such as the European markets. The company will employ effective strategies for entering the oversea markets in order to enable them become competitive; hence increasing profitability. One of the effective strategies that the company will employ is indirect export strategy. The company can use this strategy for matching the requirements of the foreign buyer. It can also choose to deal with international business that takes into considerations the foreign policies and regulations. The second strategy is the direct export since analyzing the direct export activities will enable the company to take greater control of their activities. It can involve in product sales and distribution in the international markets; thus employing this strategy will enable them to increase their sales. Lastly, it can employ foreign

Mabel Cooper's Life Story Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Mabel Cooper's Life Story - Essay Example ‘Mabel Cooper’s Life Story’ is a heroic tale of a very determined individual who survived in society against all odds. Qs. 1. Discrimination and stigmatization that Mabel encountered during her life Mabel was born to a poor and homeless mother on the 10th of August, 1944 in Islington, London, but was moved into care when she was just four months old. Thereafter, her childhood was spent in different care schools and finally she was moved to St. Lawrence Hospital, Surrey, where she spent the next 20 years of her life. Mabel was discriminated and stigmatized because she had a learning disability and had never been to school and moreover she had a very poor background history. Mabel was told that she was not capable enough to study and so was put in a ward where they learned basket making. They also had the option of working in the laundry or workshops or even remain idle if they wished. A learning disability proved to be a real setback for Mabel and besides not being allowed to go to school, she was also not allowed to use her own clothes or shoes but had to make do with the ones given by the hospital. Though dances were conducted on the premises, they were again segregated with males on one side and females on the other. There were a good number of staff and they had to dance in between them. Mabel and her friends were discriminated from society by not being allowed to go out and mix with the regular people. Money in the form of green coins were given to them but it could only be used in their own hospital canteens and not outside. People who ran away were brought back and put in a ward called G3 where they were locked up as punishment. In this manner people with learning disabilities were discriminated and segregated from society in contemporary Britain. 2. Explain the concept of 'social role valorization' and describe how you would ensure Mabel becomes a valued member of the community. Banks, S (2001) in the book, ‘Ethics and Values in Social Work’ sheds light on the contribution of social workers in fulfilling the concept of ‘social role valorization’. Broadly speaking, people with learning difficulties are looked down upon and discriminated by society for the mere reason that they are much less productive and very little use to the community and society at large. 'Social role valorization' (SRV) is defined as  "The application of what science can tell us about the enablement, establishment, enhancement, maintenance, and/or defense of valued social roles for people" (Wolfensberger, 1995a). The primary goal of SRV is lending support to people in society so as to enable them to enjoy all the good things that society has got to offer. Some of these good things are love and friendship, respect and dignity, acceptance and belonging, good education and status in the society. In the case of people with learning disabilities, it becomes impossible for them to find a valued place in society since th ey are not in a position to contribute to their community and society and automatically become devalued members of society. Hence being devalued members of society, they are not in a position to enjoy the good things in life. On the other hand, such members are rejected by their community and society, and thereby receive a lot of negative responses and in most cases become objects of abuse and violence. SRV is a response to such groups of devalued members and lends great support in helping them to become

Organizational Behavior at Fasco Motors Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Organizational Behavior at Fasco Motors - Essay Example Fasco management should have been working continuously to create a culture of collectivism and loyalty, under a team methodology, to ensure that the business was aligned with Thailand customer needs and values. To the customers in Thailand, the concept of trust, ethics, and relationship was vital to establishing business relationships. The unethical behaviors, such as providing low-cost products to favorite customers and then adjusting accounting to hide this deception, was creating a culture of mistrust and greed. When it was discovered, by other managers in the leadership team, that these situations were occurring, failure to disclose this knowledge to senior-level officials showed the lack of integrity related to establishing a loyalty-based, family-oriented organizational culture. Positive organizational behavior demands that individuals in management or senior-level leadership roles model behaviors related to ethics, unity, and trustworthy business practices. There is a theory i n social sciences referred to as social learning theory in which individuals observe role models and then learn what behaviors are appropriate based on whether they are rewarded or punished (Neubert, Carlson, Kacmar, Roberts & Chonko, 158). When the role model is someone attractive and credible, or hold high status in a firm, people will generally model these behaviors when they are not punished effectively (Neubert, et al). This is what was occurring at the organization as mid-level management viewed their leaders being rewarded for their false accounting practices. In fact, Allen Moot, the general manager, was receiving kickbacks for these efforts and thus it provided legitimacy to model these same behaviors by the other managers who were ultimately fired for their role in modeling these unethical business practices. In order to create a cohesive organization built on ethics and loyalty, there must be an establishment of affiliation between all group members. Creating a sense of t eam belonging is critical in organizational behavior in order to gain motivation and commitment. â€Å"Once the need for affiliation is satisfied, the individual desires more recognition and this can produce feelings of prestige, power, and control† (Gambrel & Cianci, 144). While the managers were receiving kickbacks for their improper business decisions, others were observing lack of punishment for unethical behaviors and thus an unacceptable type of affiliation was being created: one in which individuals were gaining financial rewards for dishonest business dealings. However, this indecent type of affiliation in the management ranks was providing perceptions of power, confidence, and control and thus people were willing to abandon business needs to satisfy their own financial objectives. To have a quality team, people have to come to identify with the group and psychologically join in order for there to be loyalty (Bush & Coetzer, 185). High ranking managers like Allen Moot were creating a new type of social identity related to groups by accommodating individual needs and forsaking business objectives in the process. Regardless of the unethical behaviors, team membership was being developed effectively, but for all the wrong reasons as it related to personal fulfillment and financial reward.

Interactive computer prac5 Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Interactive computer prac5 - Coursework Example Scott, and William Buxton). Therefore they have ability to use their both hand with better performance that the right handers. f) From the obvious expectation, the most associated factors with IP were age, preferred hand, and hours per week using computers. IP is directly linked to physical growth of specific muscles, muscular memory, and the frequency of operations per day, using mouse (MacKenzie, I. Scott, and William Buxton). g) For definition of individual point of failure, my best choice was to use a grip exerciser and worked as long as the hand was refusing to respond to physical activity. The important muscle fatigue has been practiced after the 5th sequential set of working with grip exerciser until the total devastation of muscle power. It is evident from the table given the trials gives a reason to be certain that accrued fatigue considerably drops the skill of the wrist to operate as necessary (Fitts & Peterson). To obtain the comparable effect, we use a heavy overload by joint operations during day-to-day activities. The results are easily explainable by the inability increase of hand muscles react to the necessary operations because of the substantial load by exercises. It is evident that the fatigue affects the situation with performance more considerably after 60% of load. Therefore the best drawn conclusion is that the performance can be enhanced if the preferred hand is more tangibly and physically established. k) The purpose of the experiment below is to evaluate the level of impact that a pointing device can have on the performance. This was successful with the use of machine joystick, notebook touch-pad, and a mouse can be used. The obtained results were as shown on the table below: It was more evident on the results that an unusual pointing device decreases the IP. The more unusual the device is the more substantial the influence is. This is majorly based on motoric memory of the hand muscles. When we use a

Online Hotel reservation Essay Example for Free

Online Hotel reservation Essay INTRODUCTION Over the years, the internet has greatly changed the way people use computers and communicate today. Many Internet terms have become part of peoples everyday language and e-mail has added a whole new means through which people can communicate. By the turn of the century, information, including access to the Internet, will be the basis for personal, economic, and political advancement. The popular name for the Internet is the information superhighway. Whether you want to find the latest financial news, browse through library catalogs, exchange information with colleagues, or join in a lively political debate, the Internet is the tool that will take you beyond telephones, faxes, and isolated computers to a burgeoning networked information frontier. The pace of change brought about by new technologies has had a significant effect on the way people live and work worldwide. New and emerging technologies challenge the traditional process of teaching and learning, and the way education is managed. Information technology, while an important area of study in its own right, is having a major impact across all curriculum areas. As internet technology has improved, so have online reservation systems. Today, it is possible through online, to make a reservation for a hotel anywhere in the world. Hotels can create Web site and post new content on it every day. Technology has gone a long way, improving the lives of people. These technological breakthroughs have lots to offer, making great things in the easiest, fastest and efficient possible ways you can think of. Online hotel Reservation is very useful for the people especially for socials that they can now easily reserve a room in a hotel through online Internet. Easy worldwide communication provides instant access to a vast array of data. Project Overview Project Statement The hotel reservation system will provide service to on-line customers, travel agents, and an administrator. On-line customers and travel agents can make searches, reservations and cancel an existing reservation on the hotel reservation’s web site. Administrator can add/update the hotel and the room information approve/disapprove a new travel agent’s account application and  generate a monthly occupancy rate report for each hotel. Literature review The design of travel and tourism websites has received substantial attention by scholars (e.g.Schegg et al., 2002; Law and Leung, 2002; Law andWong, 2003; Scharl, Wà ¶ber and Bauer, 2003; Landvogt, 2004; So and Morrison, 2004; Essawy, 2005; Jeong et al., 2005; Law and Hsu,2006;Zafiropoulos and Vrana, 2006; Schmidt, Cantallops, and dos Santos, 2007).Landvogt (2004) evaluates several online booking engines over 23 differentcriteria, like overall user friendliness, payment method, instant confirmation,reliability, and invoicing function among others. These criteria present some ofsystem’s functions and design principles discussed furtherin current paper.In their study Jeong et al. (2005) find that only two characteristics ofhotel websites (information completeness and ease of use) are importantdeterminants of perceived website quality. These results are bewildering asmost studies identify more dimensions of perceived service quality to besignificant for website users. Law and Hsu (2006), for example, assess thedimensions of hotel websites (information regarding the reservation, hotelfacilities, contact details of the property, surrounding area and websitemanagement) and attributes in each dimension mostly valued by online users.Some of the most important website attributes are found to be the room rates,availability and security of payments (in the reservation informationdimension), the location maps, hotel and room amenities (in facilitiesinformation), telephone, address and e-mail of the hotel (for contactinformation), transportation to the hotel, airports and sights (for surroundingarea information), and up-to-date information, multilingual site and shortdownload time (for website management). So and Morrison (2004) applysimilar criteria for website evaluation as the preceding study but they groupthem into technical, marketing, consumer perspective and destinationinformation perspective criteria.Essawy (2005) focuses on website usability and shows that severeusability problems with interface quality, information quality, and servicequality affect negatively the purchase and revisit intentions of website users.The author identifies some of the practical tools/activities for increasing users’perceived satisfaction, purchase intention, and potential relationship building –exchanging links  with local points of interest, shorter/simpler pathways toleisure breaks, greater depth of information for room facilities and pricing,providing proactive interactions, and avoiding third-party reservation systems. In similar vein, Scharl, Wà ¶ber and Bauer (2003) assess the effectiveness ofhotel websites. Authors identify personal, system and media factors thatcontribute to hotel website adoption. In the system factors group, that is morecontrollable by the hotel management compared to personal and media factors,they identify the perceived utility of the product, speed of the system,intelligence, layout, services, languages, navigation, interactivity, reliability ofthe system.Research has also shown that trust is an important dimension of websitedevelopment (Fam, Foscht and Collins, 2004; Chen, 2006; Wu and Chang, 2006). If consumers do not trust the website they will not visit it, or will nottransform their visits into real purchases.Although much effort has been put towards evaluating the design oftourism websites and the identification of website attributes highly valued bycustomers, there is a gap in the research in the OHRS design and its specificproblems have not received enough attention in previous research with fewnotable exceptions. In series of reports Bainbridge (2002, 2003a, 2003b)discusses the practical aspects of the OHRS design (the search option in thesystems, the booking process and the date format), while Ivanov (2002, 2005)discusses the types and main characteristics of OHRSs and the major marketingdecisions to be taken by the marketing managers in their design. The review of available literature on the tourism / hotel website and OHRS design reveals the following conclusions:  · Website users are interested in easy navigation through the system.  · They want abundance of information for the services offered in textand pictures.  · Trust is vital for the usage of the system.  · Website design can significantly influence the online experience of theusers and their purchase intentions.  · Website design itself does not guarantee online purchases but it is theperceived utility of the product that attracts customers. Demographic characteristics and Internet Usage Behaviour Education level, age, income,and occupation have been found to be significantly different among Internet users. Bonn etal.(1998)[15] study showed that those who use the Internet as a travel information-gathering tool are likely to bemore educated, younger, with higher household incomes, use commercial lodging accommodations while traveling, tend to travel by air and spend more money on travel-related expenses. Weber and Roehl’s (1999)[16] study shows similar results. They found that online travel purchasers are more likely to be people who are aged 26-55, with higherincomes, with higher status occupations, and have more years of experience with the Internet than those who do not search or purchase online. The Asian demographic patterns of online purchasers tend to mirror their Western profiles. According tostudies carried out by Technowledge Asia in 1999 and 2000, cybershoppers in the four Asian regions (Singapore, Hong Kong, Taiwan and Malaysia) were found to be mainly males, in the age group of 26 to 35 years and better educated. Hence, it has been shown that an individual’s educational level may affect their susceptibility to attitude change. Intelligent people understandcomplex messages better, and as a result, persuasion by complex messages is more likely. In addition, an individual’s educational level is alsopartially a measure of their socioeconomic status. Weber and Roehl (1999)[16] study found that Internet â€Å"bookers† were more likely to have used the Internet for 4 years. Other researchers confirmed that Internet bookers spend more time online per week than those booking offline (Weber and Roehl ,1999)[16]. Finally, the intention to shop online is also influenced by consumers’ Internet shopping history (Shim et al., 2001)[17]. It is demonstrated by pastresearch findings that prior online shoppingexperiences have a direct impact on Internet shopping intentions (Weber and Roehl, 1999)[16]. There have been other studies that have supported online experience or tenure as key determinant of onlinebuying behavior (Bellman, Lohse, and Johnson, 1999[18] and Beldona et al, 2004)[19]. Findings indicate that the greater the number of years the user spent online combined with higher frequency of Internet usage; the greater was the likelihood of buying (Bellman et al., 1999[18]; Weber and Roehl, 1999[16] and Beldona et al 2004)[19]. Alwitt and Hamer (2000)[20] posit that consumers increase  their control with more time spent on the Internet, and in turn develop finer expectations of their interactions with businesses in general. Hammond, McWilliam, and Diaz (1998)[21] of users’ attitudes towards the Web. Based from the literature review of the Internet users,it is noticeable that Internet users are better educated, higher incomes, higher status occupations, have more online experience, use commercial lodging accommodations while travelling and tend to travel by air. In Malaysia, one of the profiles that had an early exposure to the culture of using the Internetfor personal and professional reasons was university residents. These may consist of students, administrators and lecturers. However, university staffs are more likely to fit the profiles of the Internet users (in terms of purchasing) due to their financial capability and mobility. Consequently, this leads to: H1 : There is a relationship between the university   staffs’ demographic factors and the determinants of  online hotel reservation H2 : There is a relationship between the university   staffs’ Internet usage behavior and the determinants of online hotel reservation

A Profile of United Nations Children’s Fund

A Profile of United Nations Children’s Fund United Nations Children’s Fund â€Å"We believe in a world where ZERO children die of things we can prevent.   The United Nations Children’s Fund, UNICEF, is an intergovernmental organization (IGO) that was started by the United Nations in 1946. UNICEF is non-profit and works to prevent childhood death by improving the healthcare, education, and nutrition of children around the world. They also provide emergency relief to those in need. Their reach is international and their goal is to have zero children die from preventable causes (UNICEF). On December 11, 1946 the â€Å"United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund† was started by the United Nations General Assembly. Its creation coincided with World War II in order to bring food and medical care to war-torn children in Europe, the Middle East, and China. The name was shortened to United Nations Children’s Fund in 1953 when it was made a permanent fixture of the United Nations System (UNICEF USA). Despite its name change, the fund kept the acronym UNICEF; which is still in use today. In 1965, the United Nations Children’s Fund won the Nobel Peace Prize for ‘the promotion of brotherhood among nations.† (UNICEF). In its 68 year history there have been many famous UNICEF Goodwill ambassadors including Sarah Jessica Parker, Susan Sarandon, Jackie Chan, Shakira, David Beckham, Audrey Hepburn, Danny Kaye (first celebrity ambassador), and the entire Manchester United Football Club (Borgen Project). UNICEF focuses its energy in more than 190 countries, including the United States (UNICEF). In order to conduct their humanitarian operations they have established offices worldwide. Major operations are carried out through these offices in the event of a natural disaster or emergency. Additionally, there are programs and trainings there year-round. The United States Fund for UNICEF is located in New York City, and is the main U.S. office for UNICEF. The U.S. Fund works in cooperation with the government and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) to help UNICEF achieve the goal of zero preventable child fatalities (UNICEF USA). The United Nations Foundation in DC, Friends of UNFPA in New York, and the International Peace Institute in New York are other associations in the United States that help fund UNICEF projects (UNICEF). UNICEF has a number of programs to help raise funds for their causes. One of the most popular UNICEF fundraisers is Trick-or-Treat for UNICEF. Since the 1950’s over $170 million dollars has been raised by children for children through the Trick-or-Treat for UNICEF program. The premise of the program is that when kids go door to door on Halloween that instead of asking for candy, they ask for spare change to donate to UNICEF. Not only does this raise money for UNICEF to use towards helping children, but it also teaches the children doing the fundraising the value of helping others (Trick-or-Treat for UNICEF). A newer campaign that they have implemented recently is the UNICEF Tap Project. This project raises funds to give those in need clean drinking water. It works by having people stay off of their phone for as long as possible, and the longer they are off of their phone, the more money that gets donated by a 3rd party company, Giorgio Armani (UNICEF). None of the funding for UNICEF comes from the assessed dues from the United Nations; instead their donations come from individuals, NGOs, foundations, governments, and corporations (UNICEF). For the 2011-2012 Fiscal year UNICEF had a total income of $3,866 million. When broken down fifty-seven percent of donations came from the government, and 32 percent was raised by NGOs and members of the private sector. UNICEF is known for being a reputable charity that uses a majority of its income for its cause. Of the total income $3,416 million dollars went to development, $322 million went to management, $127 was for special purposes, and $2 million was for United Nations development coordination (Charity Navigator). There are a number of ways that individuals of all ages can get involved with UNICEF’s mission. Young children can help through programs like Trick-or-Treat for UNICEF (Trick-or-Treat for UNICEF). High school and college students can join clubs that are dedicated to raising money for UNICEF. Adults, with at least a bachelor’s degree and experience in certain fields, can even personally volunteer with UNICEFs missions. Another way that anyone can be involved is by monetary donations made to UNICEF or one of its funds (UNICEF USA). One of the most prevalent causes of preventative childhood death is starvation. UNICEF battles childhood hunger in many ways including giving children peanut paste and micronutrient powder. Peanut paste is a high-energy therapeutic food. It works well because it is high in calories and does not require any preparation or refrigeration. Like its name suggests the micronutrient powder contains many vitamins and minerals necessary for healthy growth and development in children. It also improves immune function and helps prevent disease (UNICEF USA). For only $10 UNICEF can distribute 321 packets of micronutrient powder. UNICEF helps infants who suffer from malnutrition by teaching mothers the benefits of breast feeding. Breast fed children are six times more likely to survive the first few months than children who are not breast fed. Also, UNICEF still helps provide food in emergencies such as natural disasters (UNICEF). Along with helping fight childhood malnutrition, UNICEF also improves children’s lives by providing healthcare, clean water, and educational supplies. More than one third of the world’s children have received a vaccination or immunization thanks to UNICEF. They have also helped 1.8 billion people have access to clean drinking water. If there are not drivable roads UNICEF will deliver supplies by bicycle, boat, and even donkey when necessary. They are well trusted and have even made cease fire agreements to get to children in war zones (UNICEF USA). In the 68 years since it was founded, UNICEF has helped save more children’s lives than any other humanitarian organization. They are extremely dedicated to helping lower child mortality rates, and have been successful so far. A number of their programs work with children from birth to help end childhood malnutrition. Their work has reached billions of people in the last seven decades and will continue to in the future. Works Cited Charity Navigator Advanced Search.Charity Navigator. UNICEF, n.d. Web. 1 May 2014. Help Children | Humanitarian Aid Emergency Relief | UNICEF USA. UNICEF USA. United States Fund for UNICEF, n.d. Web. 27 Apr. 2014. Trick-or-Treat for UNICEF. UNICEF. United Nations Childrens Fund, n.d. Web. 28 Apr. 2014. UNICEF | United Nations Childrens Fund. UNICEF. United Nations Childrens Fund, n.d. Web. 24 Apr. 2014. UNICEFs First Celebrity Ambassador, Danny Kaye The Borgen Project. The Borgen Project RSS2. N.p., n.d. Web. 24 Apr. 2014.

The Existence of Intelligent Life Essay -- Extraterrestrial Intelligen

The Existence of Intelligent Life Bertrand Russell wrote, "There are two possibilities. Maybe we are alone. Maybe we are not. Both are equally frightening (Jakosky 1)." The question of life in the universe is one that leaves many in a state of bewilderment. It becomes even more interesting when it leads to another question -- that of intelligent life in the universe. Finding other intelligent civilizations among the interstellar space would greatly affect every aspect of our existence. Conversely, not finding such a civilization would force us to examine the purpose of our own existence. To help answer the question, astronomers and scientists set up a program in search for extraterrestrial intelligence. This program, or SETI, was set up to verify, by observation that extraterrestrial life does exist. SETI tries to prove this by picking up and analyzing radio signals by means of satellites and advanced computers (Heidmann 116). The history of the SETI program is quite interesting. It started back in 1959 with the help of two famous Cornell University physicists, Guiseppi Cocconi and Phil Morrison. Both claimed that it would be possible to communicate with other potential extraterrestrial life in space by the use of techniques used in radio astronomy (Heidmann 112). Together, they voiced their belief that if other "alien astronomers" elsewhere in the universe possessed radio telescopes, that it would be possible to converse between the two (Heidmann 112-113). A young astronomer by the name of Francis Drake agreed with the theories of Cocconi and Morrison. He proposed building a radio receiver in order to listen for waves of sound being transmitted through space. It wasn't until the spring of 1960 that Dra... ...sity Press, 1992. 2. Jakosky, Bruce. The Search for Life on Other Planets. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998. 3. Kahney, Leander. "A Search for Intelligent Searchers." Wired News (1999). 29 January 2000 *http://www.nitehawk.com/rasmit/*. 4. Hipschma, Ron. " The Problem -- Mountains of Data." How SETI @Home Works (1999). 29 January 2000 http://www.nitehawk.com/rasmit/. 5. "Project Omar." SETI Institute. 1999. SETI Institute. 28 January 2000 http://www.seti.org/science/ozma.html. 6. "History of SETI." SETI Institute. 1999. SETI Institute. 29 January 2000 http://www.seti.org/general/history.html. 7. "The Optical SETI Resource for Planet Earth." The Columbus Optical SETI Observatory. 1999. Columbus Observatory. 27 January 2000 http://www.coseti.org/. 8. Ward, Peter. Interview with Lori Stokes. The Debate Over Life Beyond Earth. MSNBC. 10 Feb. 2000.

Is Formal Schooling Necessary for Children to Develop Cognitively :: essays papers

Is Formal Schooling Necessary for Children to Develop Cognitively The choices parents have today on how and where to educate their children has expanded compared to many years ago. There is your neighborhood school, a private school, a charter school or another option, which is growing in popularity--home schooling. Studies show many advantages to home schooling. One being that it is not necessary for a child to attend a formal schooling to develop cognitively. The popularity of home schooling under goes much criticism. Some educators say children that are home schooled are receiving gaps in their student learning because parents may not be qualified to provide well-rounded education. Studies show that home schooled children excel in there studies. Developing (cognitively) as good if not better then children in a formal schooling setting. In the 1950's, there were approximately 15,000 persons home schooling. These figures are a "guesstimate" as many people just kept their children at home without reporting to the state. Most people home schooled for religious reasons; some were prosecuted, even jailed. Today every state recognizes the right to school your own children. States set their own regulations and conditions, hence different laws for each state. Today because of better record keeping the estimate of home schoolers is nearing 2 million. The reasons given today for home schooling are varied from religious, political, philosophical, and dissatisfaction with public schools. Teaching and cognitive development outside of school does not have to resemble teaching and cognitive development in school. Cultural experience can be the basis for development at home and in one's community throughout one's compulsory school years. People can successfully do things differently than schools. For example, it has been widely publicized in America that adolescent girls' self-esteem fades in high school, but in a book about home schooled adolescent girls the opposite was found: If one has thought seriously about the structure and assumptions of compulsory schooling, it is hard to read the psychological literature that asks, "How can we get girls to identify with their own goals?" or even "How can we help girls to discover their real interests?" without thinking about the fact that school is in direct opposition to these concerns... ...People in school do not say to students, "What can we do for you?

Copyrights in the Music Industry Essay -- Intellectual Property, Copyr

Is important for anyone who has created any intellectual property to protect it. In the music industry, in order for someone to protect their work, they must obtain a copyright. Music has been around before anyone could obtain a copyright and when the invention of the computer came along it made it easier for someone to steal another artist's intellectual property with the help of the internet. This paper will cover what events have taken a big role in copyright protection for artist, the consequences if someone was to break the rules of a copyright which is called copyright infringement, and how will a copyright hold in the future. Were copyrights enacted without the thought of life changing technology, and how can some music companies surpass copyright infringement and make a profit from the artist? Can a copyright really make that much of a difference in the world we know today? Intellectual Property and Copyrights Intellectual property is property resulting from intellectual, creative processes. A product that was created because of someone’s individual thought process. Examples includes books, designs, music, art work, and computer files. (Miller R. J., 2011, p. 114) In the music industry a copyright is an important tool for artist to use to protect themselves from infringers. A copyright is the exclusive right of an author or originator of a literary or artistic production to publish, print, or sell that production for a statutory period of time. A copyright has the same monopolistic nature as a patent or trademark, but it differs in that it applies exclusively to works of art, literature, and other works of authorship (including computer programs). (Miller R. J., 2011, p. 125) How can someone obtain a copyright? To ob... ...en the biggest hurdles the music industry has overcome. Thanks to iTunes and Google Music record labels and artist can reach almost anyone in the world with their music and know that their work won’t be infringed upon. In the next five years copyrights will still have the respect it has today. As technology moves along copyrights will be right behind it revising the rules and regulations to make sure that an artist intellectual property is safe and that the artist or label can receive compensatory damages for copyright infringement. Works Cited A&M Records, Inc. v. Napster Inc., 239 f.3d 1004 (U.S. Court of Appeals For The 9th Circuit 2 12, 2001). Copyright Law of the United States of America. (2013). Retrieved from Copyright United States Copyright Office. Miller, R. J. (2011). Business Law Today: Comprehensive. Mason: South-Western Cengage Learning.

Hazrat Muhammad (saw) today’s Prophet Essay

When we talk about the historical personalities, Hazrat Mohammad PBUH is the greatest person among all. Prophet Mohammad PBUH is the last and perfect Prophet of Allah. I am pleased to share Prophet Mohammad PBUH actions towards each and every matter. Prophet Mohammad PBUH was the greatest scholar. His teachings are regarded the most valuable and acceptable knowledge. Not only Muslims but also non-Muslims are greatly inspired with his character and commend his nobility. Prophet Mohammad PBUH taught human being that how to be gentle and kind with other people and even with the animals. he life of the Holy Prophet, peace be on him, was a life of grand success. In his high moral qualities, his spiritual power, his high resolve, the excellence and perfection of his teaching, his perfect example and the acceptance of his prayers, in short, in every aspect of his life, he exhibited such bright signs that even a person of low intelligence, provided he is not inspired by unreasonable rancour and enmity, is forced to confess that he was a perfect example of the manifestation of Divine qualities and was a perfect man. . Prophet Mohammad PBUH was a great model for all the humanity. This article contains some actions towards every matter done by our beloved Prophet Hazrat Mohammad PBUH. Mercy to all mankind: Allah Subhanoho wa-T’ala Says to Prophet Muhammad (s.a.a.w.) in The Holy Quran: â€Å"And We have not sent you except as a mercy to mankind.† Hadrat Abu Huraira said: the Prophet was asked to curse the infidels. He said, â€Å"I have not been sent to curse people but as a mercy to all mankind.† (Muslim) Mother of faithful believers Hadrat Aisha (said that she once asked the Holy Prophet :’Did you face a day severer than the day of the battle of Uhud? ‘He answered: ‘Yes I have experienced such things at the hands of your people and such a day was the day of Aqabah. On this day I presented me. In this cloud I saw Angel Jibril (peace be upon him) who called me and said: Allah, the Most High, has heard what your people have said to you and the response to your offer. Allah has now sent the Angel of the Mountains to you to carry out your orders to do what you might like to be done to them. Then the Angel of the Mountains addressed me greeting with Salam and then said: ‘Muhammad! Allah (The Glorified and the Exalted) has heard what your people have said to you. I am the Angel of the Mountains and my Lord has sent me to you to carry out your orders. What do you want now to be done? If you like I may crush them between the two mountains encircling the city of Makka. The Holy Prophet replied: (I do not want their destruction) I am still hopeful that Allah will make some of their children (good Muslims) who would worship Allah, the One, without associating anybody with Him. His manners and disposition: â€Å"By the grace of Allah, you are gentle towards the people; if you had been stern and ill-tempered, they would have dispersed from round about you† (translation of Qur’an 3:159) About himself the prophet (pbuh) said:†Allah has sent me as an apostle so that I may demonstrate perfection of character, refinement of manners and loftiness of deportment.† By nature he was gentle and kind hearted, always inclined to be gracious and to overlook the faults of others. Politeness and courtesy, compassion and tenderness, simplicity and humility, sympathy and sincerity were some of the keynotes of his character. In the cause of right and justice he could be resolute and severe but more often than not, his severity was tempered with generosity. He had charming manners which won him the affection of his followers and secured their devotion. Though virtual king of Arabia and an apostle of Allah, he never assumed an air of superiority. Not that he had to conceal any such vein by practice and artifice: with fear of Allah, sincere humility was ingrained in his heart. He used to say, â€Å"I am a Prophet of Allah but I do not know what will be my end.† In one of his sermons calculated to instill the fear of Allah and the day of reckoning in the hearts of men, he said, â€Å"O people of Quraish be prepared for the hereafter, I cannot save you from the punishment of Allah; O Bani Abd Manaf, I cannot save you from Allah; O Abbas, son of Abdul Mutalib, I cannot protect you either; O Fatima, daughter of Muhammad, even you I cannot save.† He used to pray,:†O Allah! I am but a man. If I hurt any one in any manner, then forgive me and do not punish me.† He always received people with courtesy and showed respect to older people and stated: â€Å"To honor an old man is to show respect to Allah.† He would not deny courtesy even to wicked persons. It is stated that a person came to his house and asked permission for admission. The prophet (pbuh) remarked that he was not a good person but might be admitted. When he came in and while he remained in the house, he was shown full courtesy. When he left Aiysha (ra) said, â€Å"You did not think well of this man, but you treated him so well.† The prophet (pbuh) replied, â€Å"He is a bad person in the sight of Allah who does not behave courteously and people shun his company bacause of his bad manners.† He was always the first to greet another and would not withdraw his hand from a handshake till the other man withdrew his. If one wanted to say something in his ears, he would not turn away till one had finished . He did not like people to get up for him and used to say,†Let him who likes people to stand up in his honour, he should seek a place in hell.† He would himself, however, stand up when any dignitary came to him. He had stood up to receive the wet nurse who had reared him in infancy and had spread his own sheet for her. His foster brother was given similar treatment. He avoided sitting at a prominent place in a gathering, so much so that people coming in had difficulty in spotting him and had to ask which was the Prophet (pbuh). Quite frequently uncouth Bedouins accosted him in their own gruff and impolite manner but he never took offence. He used to visit the poorest of ailing persons and exhorted all muslims to do likewise â€Å". He would sit with he humblest of persons saying that righteousness alone was the criterion of one’s superiority over another. He invariably invited people be they slaves, servants or the poorest believers, to partake with him of his scanty meals . Whenever he visited a person he would first greet him and then take his permission to enter the house. He advised the people to follow this etiquette and not to get annoyed if anyone declined to give permission, for it was quite likely the person concerned was busy otherwise and did not mean any disrespect (Ibid). There was no type of household work too low or too undignified for him. Aiysha (ra) has stated, â€Å"He always joined in household work and would at times mend his clothes, repair his shoes and sweep the floor. He would milk, tether, and feed his animals and do the household shopping.† He would not hesitate to do the menial work of others, particularly of orphans and widows. Once when there was no male member in the house of the companion Kabab Bin Arat who had gone to the battlefield, he used to go to his house daily and milk his cattle for the inhabitants Justice: The Prophet (pbuh) asked people to be just and kind. As the supreme judge and arbiter, as the leader of men, as generalissimo of a rising power, as a reformer and apostle, he had always to deal with men and their affairs. He had often to deal with mutually inimical and warring tribes when showing justice to one carried the danger of antagonizing the other, and yet he never deviated from the path of justice. In administering justice, he made no distinction between believers and nonbelievers, friends and foes, high and low. From numerous instances reported in the traditions, a few are given below. Sakhar, a chief of a tribe, had helped Muhammad (pbuh) greatly in the seige of Taif, for which he was naturally obliged to him. Soon after, two charges were brought against Sakhar: one by Mughira of illegal confinement of his (Mughira’s) aunt and the other by Banu Salim of forcible occupation of his spring by Sakhar. In both cases, he decided against Sakhar and made him undo the wrong. (Abu Dawud, Sunan Dawud, pg.80) Abdullah Bin Sahal, a companion, was deputed to collect rent from Jews of Khaibar. His cousin Mahisa accompanied him but, on reaching Khaibar, they had separated. Abdullah was waylaid and done to death. Mahisa reported this tragedy to the Prophet (pbuh) but as there were no eye-witnesses to identify the guilty, he did not say anything to the Jews and paid the blood-money out of the state revenues. A woman of the Makhzoom family with good connections was found guilty of theft. For the prestige of the Quraish, some prominent people including Asama Bin Zaid interceded to save her from punishment. The Prophet (pbuh) refused to condone the crime and expressed displeasure saying, â€Å"Many a community ruined itself in the past as they only punished the poor and ignored the offences of the exalted. By Allah, if Muhammad’s (My) daughter Fatima would have committed theft, her hand would have been severed.† (Bukhari, Sahh Bukhari, Chapter â€Å"Alhadood†) The Jews, in spite of their hostility to the Prophet (pbuh), were so impressed by his impartiallity and sense of justice that they used to bring their cases to him, and he decided them according to Jewish law. (Abu Dawud, Sunan Dawud) Once, while he was distributing the spoils of war, people flocked around him and one man almost fell upon him. He pushed the men with a stick causing a slight abrasion. He was so sorry about this that he told the man that he could have his revenge, but the man said, â€Å"O messenger of Allah, I forgive you.† (Abu Dawud, Kitablu Diyat). In his fatal illness, the Prophet (pbuh) proclaimed in a concourse assembled at his house that if he owed anything to anyone the person concerned could claim it; if he had ever hurt anyone’s person, honor or property, he could have his price while he was yet in this world. A hush fell on the crowd. One man came forward to claim a few dirhams which were paid at once. (Ibn Hisham, Sirat-ur-Rasul) Equality: Muhammad (pbuh) asked people to shun notions of racial, family or any other form of superiority based on mundane things and said that righteousness alone was the criterion of one’s superiority over another. It has already been shown how he mixed with everyone on equal terms, how he ate with slaves, servants and the poorest on the same sheet (a practice that is still followed in Arabia), how he refused all privileges and worked like any ordinary laborer. Two instances may, however, be quoted here: Once the Prophet (pbuh) visited Saad Bin Abadah. While returning Saad sent his son Quais with him. The Prophet (pbuh) asked Quais to mount his camel with him. Quais hesitated out of respect but the Prophet (pbuh) insisted: â€Å"Either mount the camel or go back.† Quais decided to go back. (Abu Dawud, Kitabul Adab) On another occasion he was traveling on his camel over hilly terrain with a disciple, Uqba Bin Aamir. After going some distance, he asked Uqba to ride the camel, but Uqba thought this would be showing disrespect to the Prophet (pbuh). But the Prophet (pbuh) insisted and he had to comply. The Prophet (pbuh) himself walked on foot as he did not want to put too much load on the animal. (Nasai pg. 803) The prisioners of war of Badr included Abbas, the uncle of the Prophet (pbuh). Some people were prepared to forgo their shares and remit the Prophet’s (pbuh) ransom but he declined saying that he could make no distinctions. (Bukhari, Sahih Bukhari, Chapter â€Å"Ransoms†) During a halt on a journey, the companions apportioned work among themselves for preparing food. The Prophet (pbuh) took upon himself the task of collecting firewood. His companions pleaded that they would do it and that he need not take the trouble, but he replied, â€Å"It is true, but I do not like to attribute any distinction to myself. Allah does not like the man who considers himself superior to his companions

Mahindra project report Essay

After concrete efforts of our Management, the students of Kohinoor Management School got this esteemed opportunity to have an Industrial visit to a prestigious company like Mahindra and Mahindra Ltd. We appreciate the efforts of the management of KMS & M&M for executing this successful Industrial trip. Introduction to Mahindra: Mahindra & Mahindra Limited is the flagship company of the Mahindra Group, a multinational conglomerate based in Mumbai, India. The company was set up in 1945 in Ludhiana as Mahindra by brothers K.C. Mahindra and J.C. Mahindra. Mahindra & Mahindra is a major automobile manufacturer of tractors, utility vehicles, passenger cars, pickups, commercial vehicles; its tractors are sold on six continents. It has acquired plants in China and the United Kingdom, and has three assembly plants in the USA. M&M has a global presence and its products are exported to several countries. Its global subsidiaries  include Mahindra Europe Srl. based in Italy, Mahindra USA Inc., Mahindra South Africa and Mahindra (China) Tractor Co. Ltd. M&M is one of the leading tractor brands in the world by volume. It is also the largest manufacturer of tractors in India with sustained market leadership of over 25 years. It designs, develops, manufactures, and markets tractors as well as farm implements. The Journey Begins†¦. We reached the Mahindra plant at Kandivali, Mumbai. We headed to the Conference room and were briefed about the Company by a presentation on the leadership and the entire group of M&M followed by the Q & A Session which lasted for an hour. The honors were done none other than Mr. Shirish Tawde, the Deputy General Manager (DGM) of the Company. Accompanying him were Mr. Kishor Sonawane (Manger – Business Excellence), Rajendra Sawant (Sr. Manager Business Excellence), Mr. Mahesh Dalvi (Manager – Business Excellence, Sector Sustainability). With such dignitaries explaining us the world of M&M, we were just as grateful. This plant mainly deals in manufacturing of Tractors and Farm Equipments. The plant is one of the oldest manufacturing plants in the production of tractors in India. After decades in leading the tractor sector M&M have diversified into the roots of farming and have positioned themselves in the Farm Sector. After being briefed through the introduction of M&M plant, we were about to explore the India’s most Prestigious Companies. We were divided into 2 groups of 15 people so as to have individual attention . We visited 3 units of the plant right from examination of engine parts, assembling of engine and main manufacturing of tractors. They manufacture 2,00,000 tractors annually. The FES contributes 35% market share. Hands on approach to Production (where theory meets practical): Each Group was taken separately and explained functioning of the plant. A lot of theory is learnt is class regarding how the manufacturing units focus on Total Productivity, Total Quality, Zero Defect, etc†¦but by far this was the  first hands on experience on how does a Manufacturing unit or plant works. Here we are explained about how the assembly line manufacturing process works. This section of the plant deals with the installation of the main engine of the tractor. In this picture we are introduced to how the stations work in co-ordination to get optimum results. In the pictures below, the students are taken through a complete channel of stations on the assembly station and the supervisor explaining each of this complicated process. The lag or lead time is calculated and each one at every station tries to improve on it so as to reduce the time effect in assembling each engine. The units where tractors are manufactured in assembly lines follow Total Quality Management (TQM) and Total Productivity Management (TPM). Every sub-unit contributes to the production. They avoid material handling losses with pulleys and fork-lifts. All these techniques add value to the production. Indeed there is no surprise they improve their quality and reduce time with ever unit of production of tractor. Here, we are shown how the final tractors are put in place Students Opinion: Kohinoor Management School gave us the Golden Opportunity to visit the Mahindra and Mahindra plant at Kandivali. It was a great experience to know the organization internally. They are successful enough to balance between Business Excellence and Individual Dignity. Their main focus on farm tech prosperity is what like me a lot, as agriculture is the base of the Indian Economy. -Pratibha Shinde. Visit to the M & M was an eye-opener. The journey unfolded various aspect of the tractor division. Starting from the nuts and bolts, the engine, to the massive structure which forms the backbone of the Indian farms and agricultural sector. The gains or the take away from the visit were splendid. The use of Japanese technology in the assembly line, the step by step process layout, the plan B; the vision of always staying ahead were the insights. Lots of management mantras were demonstrated and inculcated. A great learning and an honour to see the invasion of the GREAT INDIAN TRACTOR DIVISION. -Yogendra Joshi. It was my first Industrial visit to any manufacturing plant and enjoyed every bit of it. To be a part of such an esteemed organization and having a look through all their process was an intriguing experience after all. -Shraddha Salunke On behalf of all the Management and the students we take this opportunity to thank the entire team of Mahindra and Mahindra for providing us with the practical information and well as wonderful hospitality. We take moment to offer our greetings to the entire Mahindra and Mahindra team.

Fiction and Post-modernism

Post-Modernism is similar to Modernism because in many respects the two movements are similar. Post-Modernism simply means that a new generation concluded, as its elders had done, that there are no certainties and that life has no meaning beyond what we can impose upon it. It is in technique that Post-Modernism distinguishes itself from Modernism and it started in Europe and Latin American in 1945 and in North America in 1960. In Post-Modernism, there was a notion that it was absurd that literature could see life steadily and see it whole. Instead, fragments, individual perceptions, incoherence and even drug-induced hallucinations seemed more real and in touch with the times than any claim of stability or unity. The stories I will be looking further in to, to see how they represent Post-Modernism, are: â€Å"The Babysitter,† by Robert Coover, â€Å"The Balloon,† by Donald Barthelme, and â€Å"Jealous Husband Returns in Form of Parrot,† by Robert Olen Butler, Jr. â€Å"The Babysitter† is a fragmented story about a babysitter taking care of two children while their parents attend a cocktail party. The story has many elements of sexuality in it and the same storyline included different endings, such as the babysitting being raped by her boyfriend and his friend, the children’s father seducing the babysitter, and even the possibility of the young child drowning in the bathtub. The babysitter is watching television shows and switches back between a drama and a mystery, and this mirrors the fragmented situation that is given to the reader. This story represents Post-Modernism because Post-Modernism does not look for a unified sense of self in the individual; like the world the individual is a random collection or collage of miscellaneous pieces of the external culture. In this story, the reader can be very confused as to what is truly happening. Did she actually get raped by her boyfriend and his friend? Or did she get seduced by the children’s father? At the end of the story, we don’t know what happened and it is hinted that there was a murder, but there is no way to confirm this. This story has over 100 paragraphs, and they do not connect with each other. Going back to try to piece them together to make different plots is impossible because some paragraphs don’t even indicate which plot they are a part of. Along the same lines, this work of fiction embraces all aspects of the present culture and puts them in a fantastic combination as a way of conveying the fragmentation of contemporary life. Events in life aren’t always neat and in order; we can live scattered lives and this story represents how we see things in our everyday life. There is no chronological narrative, but instead scattered fragmentations that do not always make sense, just like how a person’s true life is. Lastly, this story represents Post-Modernism because it is metafiction; the â€Å"point† of the story is about the process of making fiction. I felt this story had a mixture of different fiction stories in it, and as a reader we are not sure which one is the truth, or if any of them even happened for that matter. A device of metafiction is the story addressing specific conventions with the story itself, and â€Å"The Babysitter† accomplished this by using the conventions of paragraph and plot, and portraying them in an unconventional way. There were many elements of Post-Modernism used in â€Å"The Balloon† as well. This story is about a seemingly purposeless balloon that suddenly appeared in NYC. It seems the narrator inflated the balloon one night while people were sleeping and covers almost the entire southern half of Manhattan. Everybody is mesmerized by this balloon and are so fascinated as to where it came from and what it means. By the end of the story, it is unsure as to whether there really was a balloon there or whether it was just part of the imagination of the narrator. In Post-Modern thought, any sense of a unifying idea or philosophy or even the notion of scientific progress is rejected. In this story, there was no logical reasoning as to what the balloon represented. It appeared there and people were amazed by it, but there was no real explanation as to how it appeared and what the purpose of it was for. Imagination seemed to be used more than logic and reason. Also, a characteristic of Post-Modernism is that art cannot provide any explanation or unity for experience; it cannot explain or unify experience. To me, the balloon was an artistic representation. People were trying to figure out what it was meant for, but it seemed to provide no purpose for them. The only person it might’ve provided purpose for was the narrator, but I find it odd how he would inflate this big balloon and put it in a place where half of NYC can see, only to use it for his own purpose. Just like with â€Å"The Babysitter,† the point of the story is more about the process of metafiction rather than telling a story. I feel the narrator was using the balloon as a symbol in his own story. The balloon represented a time of unhappiness for him because his love was away; and when she came back the balloon was removed and reserved for another time of unhappiness. Lastly, there are elements of Post-Modernism in â€Å"Jealous Husband Returns in Form of Parrot. † This story is about a parrot that supposedly used to be a man, but had died and was now a parrot. The parrot was bought by his widow, and now he could look around and see how her life is now and to reflect on his previous life and the way he is now. Post-Modernism does not look for a unified sense of self in the individual; like the world the individual is a random collection or collage of miscellaneous pieces of the external culture. This story really did not have much unity and it wasn’t certain whether the parrot was supposed be like a reincarnation of the man, or just a symbol of what he had become. Most people in life don’t believe that a man could die and then become a parrot, and when the parrot is exploring the world around him, it is a random collection. All of the miscellaneous things he sees around him now, he sees in a different light. Similarly, art itself is a collage, a collection of fragments that create no unity. It isn’t certain whether the parrot was only alive after the man had died, or if the man’s soul was transformed in the parrot. The pieces of the story do not always fit together so the reader can be confused as to what truly happened and at the end the fate of the bird is unknown. Also, a characteristic of Post-Modernism is that satire, parody, jokes, and black humor often dominate the tone of a work of fiction. This story had some funny elements in it. There is a scene where the man, in the form of the parrot, is mocking the man that his widow is with. He struggled to say words, and is able to call the man a â€Å"cracker† and also makes a comment when the man is nude and says â€Å"peanut,† and this goes without saying that he is mocking the man’s manhood size. He figured there is no way he can get his widow back, so he resorts to name calling in order to make the man who is loving his wife feel less superior. Post-Modernism was very similar to Modernism, but there is no unified sense of self in the individual. In most of these stories, the individual, like the world, is a random collection or collage of miscellaneous pieces of the external culture. I enjoyed reading these stories because they make you think a lot about what the point of the story is, if there even is one; or the author could be using the metafiction for the story. Either way, these short stories challenge the reader to figure out why the author portrayed the characters and plot the way they are, and what we as readers can take away from the story.

A Theoretical Perspective on Dowry Deaths in India

jectRESEARCH METHODLOGY Area: Rights of women in India Topic: A Theoretical Perspective on Dowry Deaths in India Objectives: a) To understand the concept of dowry as has originated and evolved in India. b) To conceptualize modern day consequences of dowry system. c) To refer to various laws in India and find out reasons for ineffectuality. d) To analyze the trend lay down in this regard by way of various judicial decisions. e) To critically analyze the reasons for divergence between the object of law with regard to dowry death and the practice evolved by judicial precedents. Research questions: a) What is dowry? b) How has the concept of dowry evolved in India? c) What are the various sections of the statutes applicable to the crime of dowry death? d) What are the drawbacks with respect to judicial intervention in the cases of dowry deaths? e) What can be done by the responsible authorities and by the society at large to prevent the occurrence of dowry deaths? Research tools: The research of this project was carried out with the help of internet and the books available in the library of N. L. U. so the sources are secondary in nature. Case study method has been used to study the concept of dowry death in practicality. In the whole project, uniform footnoting style is adopted in conformity with National Law University. Chapterization: 1) Introduction 2) Evolution of dowry system in India 3) Modern Day Consequences 4) Illegality of Practice: India’s Positive Laws 5) The Ineffectuality of the Dowry Prohibition Act 6) Contemporary Problems of the Modern Dowry System 7) Case study 8) Suggestions ) Conclusion Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION In modern Indian political discourse the custom of dowry is often represented as the cause of serious social problems, including the neglect of daughters, sex-selective abortion, female infanticide, and the harassment, abuse, and murder of brides. Attempts to deal with these problems through legislative prohibition of dowry, however, have resulted in virtually no diminution of either dowry or violence against women. [1] Marriages are made i n heaven, is an adage. A bride leaves the parental home for the matrimonial home, leaving behind sweet memories therewith a hope that she will see a new world full of love in her groom's house. She leaves behind not only her memories, but also her surname, gotra and maidenhood. She expects not only to be a daughter in law, but a daughter in fact. Alas! The alarming rise in the number of cases involving harassment to the newly wed girls for dowry shatters the dreams. In-laws are characterized to be outlaws for perpetrating a terrorism which destroys matrimonial home. The terrorist is dowry, and it is spreading tentacles in every possible direction. [2] Imagine the plight of a young woman, newly wed and thrust into an unfamiliar situation. She is surrounded by those she has only just met, her new husband and his family. They regard her as a means to an end – she is little more than a device by which to enrich them. She finds herself emotionally and physically harassed day and night because her parents cannot meet all of her in-laws’ dowry demands. Her parents have already exhausted much of their life savings and have little left to give. But because she is a dutiful wife, a good daughter, an obedient woman, she stays at her in-laws, resigned to her fate. [3] Then, one evening, while she is working in the kitchen, she feels a terrible chill. Someone has doused her with a pail of kerosene and another is about to throw a burning match. Can she save herself by taking off her clothes? No. When doused with kerosene or gasoline, a human being’s first feeling is sharp cold. Instantaneously, aided by one’s own body heat, the kerosene evaporates by drawing out the young wife’s warmth. The match is thrown. She bursts into a ball of flames. A living human being, with a warm body, full of love, hope, and trust towards what should have been a new and exciting phase in her life – a life terminated in its prime – all for a motor car, a scooter, a bicycle, a refrigerator, or a television. This is the shocking reality of the contemporary dowry marriage in India and the frightening experience faced by many young women. Each year, thousands of these young women are murdered, through what has been dubbed â€Å"bride-burnings†,[4] by husbands and in-laws seeking increased dowry demands. While the practice of dowry is commonly perceived by the international community as one of Indian custom and culture, in its current form it is more accurately described as a social phenomenon believed to bestow a greater social status upon the recipient. Originally designed to be a gift given out of affection at the time of a daughter’s marriage, today the dowry system has turned into a perverted version of an ancient and respected custom. It has now become an obligatory transaction that places a heavy impact on a family’s financial and social status and a young wife’s welfare. In the last four decades, dowry negotiations between the families of brides and grooms have escalated into continuing demands even after the agreed-upon amount is given. Even more disquieting are the increasing numbers and the ways in which young wives are killed when their husbands and in-laws are dissatisfied with the amount of dowry given or when additional demands are not met. Frequently, as the violence and abuse escalates, if the young wife is not murdered she is driven to commit suicide. In this project, I will discuss about the historical perspective of dowry as well as the modern evolution of this system. Thereafter is a reference to its evolution and its consequences. It takes the position that the modern practice of dowry is actually the product of economic and socio-cultural processes and modern-day dowry is a relatively recent transformation into a means of extortion by the groom and his family, having no religious justification. Subsequently, this paper analyzes relevant Indian positive laws currently in place to prevent dowry deaths while the next part examines the reasons behind the unenforceability behind these laws. A chapter quantifies the phenomenon of dowry death and highlights the contemporary statistics. Chapter 2 A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE ON THE ORIGINS OF DOWRY The definition of â€Å"dowry† is commonly understood to mean the property that a bride brings with her at the time of marriage. [5]This custom, which traditionally was the voluntary giving of gifts by the bride’s father to his daughter, his son-in-law, and sometimes his daughter’s in-laws at the time of marriage, has been in practice since ancient times in India. [6]However, like many other customs, it has evolved over the course of centuries. Because a Hindu marriage is a sanskara or sacrament, the tenth ordained by the sacred scriptures of the Hindus, [7]an orthodox Hindu must marry. The Hindu scriptures recognized eight forms of marriage, four approved and four unapproved. The two leading forms of marriage were the Brahma and Asura forms. In the most common of the approved forms, the Brahma[8] form, the bridegroom is invited and the bride is given to him as a gift by her father. It was within this form of marriage that the tradition of giving gifts prevailed and the father would give his daughter as many gifts as he could afford. [9] Likewise, of the unapproved, the most common was the Asura[10] form which meant an outright purchase of the bride. Accordingly, all marriages in which the bride was given without receiving any kind of consideration from the bridegroom came to be called Brahma, and where any payment was made, came to be known as Asura. [11] The validity of the Brahma form of marriage is due largely to its ancient religious significance. In comparison, the Asura form of marriage was eventually condemned because it was in contrast to Hindu religious ideas . An approved marriage among Hindus has always been considered a kanyadan,[12] an ideological principle, to which dowry, or gift-giving as it was originally intended, was inextricably linked. A customary nuptial, kanyadan reflects the idea of the gift of a virgin daughter into marriage to the groom and his family. Articulated dowry demands were forbidden under this ideology, as the bride and the â€Å"dowry† were gifts to be freely and voluntarily given by the father of the bride. Combined with the fact that the giving of one’s daughter and her dowry constituted a holy act, dowry was originally intended to be limited to the holiest and highest of the four castes, the Brahmins, the priests of the Hindu caste system. [13] The custom of dowry originated during the Vedic period of 1500-500 B. C. amongst the North Hindu Rajputs. At the time of its origin it was practiced only among the Brahmin caste, and the religious significance arose from the ancient scripts of Manu, a holy text[14] that ordained that dowry should be restricted to the Brahmin caste. Nonetheless, even in the early days, families who were wealthy enough to give gifts to the groom and the bride’s matrimonial family were allowed to do so. [15] These high caste Hindus considered kanyadan as one of the sacred paths to salvation. [16] These gifts could hardly be called dowry within the contemporary meaning of the word as they were gifts freely given after the marriage as signs of affection. Further, there is no account that grooms tried to make fortunes by demanding large amounts of valuable gifts. In those days, if any such request was made, it was rejected and deemed completely unreasonable since the prevailing view was that the groom was taking the bride away and stripping her family of her services. Thus, traditionally dowry was also viewed as a way to demonstrate one’s social status and caste. Even within the Brahmin caste, the giving of dowry demonstrated status and strengthened social ties. Unlike today’s practice, historically dowry rarely enabled individuals to advance up the social and economic ladder. Moreover; these gifts were limited to those families who could freely give them and whose socio-economic status permitted it. B. Traditional Dowry Customs Historically dowry, or the act of kanyadan, had a ritual significance in controlling the marriage process and limiting the scope and scale of gift giving. When a woman married in India she was valued as the moral force of the family. Thus, the meaning behind dowry was fundamentally religious and symbolic, and the ritual Brahmin practice of kanyadan gave the bride power and status; accordingly, both she and her dowry were considered a sacred gift. This meritorious act of kanyadan consisted of two aspects. Stridhan is the classical notion behind an Indian woman’s marriage wealth. Given directly to the bride, it was meant to be an asset to her in times of adversity and, under Hindu law, was her own property. Dakshina was a gift given out of affection from the family of the bride to the groom and included any continuous gifts made after the marriage. Hence, traditional dowry was formerly confined to specific gifts for specific purposes. Stridhan Literally, the word stridhan means women’s property. 17] Given as a sign of affection and as a symbol of the natal family’s ability to take care of their daughter, this portion of the dowry was intended to equip a woman for her new life. The bride received these gifts, which consisted of mostly movable property such as household possessions, clothing, bedding, furniture, utensils, Literally translated, Stri mean women’s and dhan means property and precious jewe lry, either before or after the marriage. Any gifts given to the bride by friends and other relatives before or after the marriage or at the time of the bridal procession were also considered part of stridhan. The Dharmashastras, an ancient holy text of the Hindus, suggest that stridhan was the bride’s property over which she enjoyed complete control and which would provide her with financial protection in times of adversity. [18] Thus, stridhan’s most critical concept was that the woman had absolute ownership of the property. This implied two important characteristics. First, a woman had full rights as to its disposal and division as it was her absolute property. She was therefore free to sell, give, mortgage, lease, or exchange it as she pleased. [19]Second, upon her death, a woman’s stridhan passed to her own female heirs,[20] i. . usually her daughters. Before the Hindu Succession Act of 1956 (â€Å"Succession Act†), Hindu women were not allowed to inherit immovable property such as land or buildings; they were only allowed to inherit the stridhan of their mothers. [21] Thus, stridhan was meant as a substitute for the non-inclusion of the daughter in the inh eritance process. [22]However, section 14 of the Succession Act now provides that â€Å"any property possessed by a female Hindu is held by her as full owner†¦Ã¢â‚¬ [23]The legislation applied to immovable property in addition to the movable property, acquired through any means. 24]It also decreed that women were entitled to inherit equally along with their brothers, thus allowing them to inherit property from their fathers. [25] 2. Dakshina The Dharamashastras further stipulated that the meritorious act of kanyadan was incomplete until the groom was given a dakshina. In kanyadan, the bride was the gift given to the groom, and a gift or dan has to be accompanied by a subsidiary gift, i. e. dakshina. When a dakshina was given to a Brahmin priest, it was given without any material reciprocation. The priest in turn, blessed the giver and deemed the gift sacred, thereby elevating the religious status of the giver. Thus, the giving of dakshina is based off the religious principle of gift-giving to a Brahmin priest. The dakshina was a nominal gift, usually some gold or cash, that was given purely out of affection directly to the groom. In earlier times, this bequest was voluntary, not compulsory, and the amount or lack of the gift did not create an impediment to the completion of the marriage. Again, the bride’s family gave dakshina only in accordance with their financial ability. Therefore, associated with the religious symbolism of dakshina, traditional dowry also represented a gift of affection from the natal parents to their future son-in-law, consisting of celebrations, gifts, and money, for which they received blessings, status, and perhaps the knowledge of having arranged a secure future for their daughter. Dowry as a traditional concept, then, represented the women’s right to property, which would be transferred to daughters at the time of their marriage as a type of â€Å"pre-mortem† inheritance. Since marriage is a required sacrament, the token dakshina given to the groom, as completion of the act of kanyadan, paved the pathway to salvation for the bride’s family. Originally constituting the inheritance of the bride, dowry, as it is known today, eventually took on the meaning of a gift meant for the couple. This gift, comprised of the stridhan belonging to the wife and the dakshina of the groom, was usually managed by the husband and could later be used by the couple as an inheritance or dowry for their own children. Ideally then, the conjugal estate encompassed the dowry brought by a daughter and the inheritance given to a son at the time of their marriage. Hence, the dowry system as originally intended was meant to provide security to a new couple as they began their new life together. C. Modern Evolution of Dowry It is essential to reiterate that the traditional ideology of the kanyadan marriage was practiced only among the high priestly Brahmin caste, and the wealthy upper castes. Within this kanyadan marriage, stridhan was not part of the dowry as it was given directly to the bride and she could dispose of it as she saw fit. Dakshina symbolized an affectionate portion given to the future son-in-law in accordance with a family’s financial ability. This social transfer of wealth within a cultural framework provided not only the fulfillment of a material obligation of the bride’s family to the bride, but also served as the moral basis for the establishment of a relationship between the two families. [26] The once voluntary affectionate portion of Dakshina is what has transformed into today’s modern dowry. Consequently, dowry marriages are equated with Brahma kanyadan marriages. Nonetheless, not until the middle of the 19th century, did ordinary families became obligated to provide elaborate dowries, the cost of which might ruin a family, or the lack of which might impede the settlement of a their daughter’s marriage. 1. Increase in Prevalence and Resulting Effects of Hypergamy It was at this time that hypergamous marriages came into vogue in some regions, and ompetition for grooms came to include payments in the form of cash, precious metals, and other valuables. [27]Hypergamy refers to the custom of marrying a man from a superior grade or clan with general notion being that a female should wed a superior male, thereby marrying into a higher division, but under no circumstances marrying into a lower one. A major consequence of hypergamy is status asymmetry between the m ale’s side and the female’s side, resulting in the notion that the groom’s family is superior to the bride’s family. Thus the latter improve their status through marriage while the former secure cash, jewelry, and other costly items. Hence, the giving of dowry is integral to a hypergamous marriage and it was in northern India where this ideology was broadly practiced. In contrast, among the South Indian castes, as previously stated, the custom of bride-price was universal. This custom, if anything, resulted in favor of the female’s family. [28] However, because it later came to be condemned as an Asura marriage by the Brahmin law givers, bride-price became unpopular among most of Indian society. 29]The law givers interpreted the asura marriages as involving the sale of the brides and their own form, kanyadan marriages, as involving the gift of the bride. If a bride’s family accepted payment, the element of gratuity that is essential to kanyadan would be destroyed, and consequently the notion that the bride’s family should give but not receive became very popular. [30] The comme rcial aspect of the bride-price transaction was regarded as a taint upon the sacredness of marriage. Thus, kanyadan was preferred because it was free of this commercial element, [31]and the Brahma form of marriage prevailed. Nonetheless, the ideology of the hypergamous kanyadan marriage allows families, by resorting to an attraction of wealth, to obtain desirable bridegrooms from higher classes and thereby elevate their own status. Furthermore, the kanyadan marriage requires the giving of dakshina. It is ironic that dakshina, or â€Å"bride-groom’s† price, was never deemed objectionable to the Brahma form, despite its similarity to bride price. 32]In any event, the system of dowry spread throughout the Southern regions of India and a new status asymmetry was introduced among the dowry paying castes. To that extent, the South became much like the North and the modern day dowry system has widely replaced the institution of bride-price. 2. Increase in Access to and Emulation of Higher Castes The successful replacement of bride-price by dowry may be attributed to the fact that dowry became associated with prestige as a consequence of preference by the higher caste groups. The key to the increase in dowry-giving throughout the regions of India may be that lower caste groups desired to emulate and aspire to the system of dowry as a way of following the example of the higher caste groups. Consequently, this may also explain the concomitant increase in the dowry phenomenon and resulting bride burning. It was not until the last few decades that emulation such as this has become a relatively new phenomenon. It has been noted that while both bride-price and bride-groom price, i. e. owry were followed in castes with an internal hierarchy, in the past, the dominant castes did not allow emulation by the lower castes. This sharp increase in emulation has been attributed to improved economic conditions and increased education, as well as greater access to the organized sector. Furthermore, since the time of Indian independence, increased inter-caste mixing in schools and in jobs has provided the lower groups with access to the higher groups, enabling them to obse rve their ways and adopt them. This change from bride-price to dowry has been detrimental to women and their families because the contemporary dowry system has evolved into a practice that causes financial ruin to brides’ families, endangers young wives’ lives and well-being, and lowers the status of women, as well as that of their families. Finally, because marriage in India is believed to be a necessity in order to fulfill religious duties and is required by Hindi ideology, it is out of the question not to marry off a daughter. Thus, many families who are unable to afford elaborate dowries or meet continuing demands find themselves between the proverbial rock and a hard place. Chapter 3 MODERN DAY CONSEQUENCES OF DOWRY SYSTEM Today, it is believed that the present dowry system has its origin in the twin Hindu marriage rites of kanyadan, of which stridhan was a part, and dakshina. However, to call stridhan, the presents made to the bride at or after the marriage, as a requisite part of dowry is a mistake, since it completely misunderstands the very concept of stridhan. The stridhan given to a woman at the time of marriage cannot be equated to dowry because in traditional times it was a woman’s own property that fell under her absolute power, and moreover, these items were given directly to her. Modern-day dowry is not dakshina or stridhan. It is and has always been property that has been obtained under duress, coercion, or force, and cannot be categorized as presents made to the groom or bride. The distinction between the two is that dowry is essentially property which is extorted from the bride’s family while presents or gifts are property that is voluntarily given. Furthermore, the amount of money and goods that are given in the contemporary dowry system are enormous, evolving into a few lakhs of rupees, as well as furniture, electronics, costly clothing, and jewelry. In addition, the bride’s family must pay all of the wedding expenses, including any travel and lodging needs of the groom and his party. Moreover, payment is demanded, directly or indirectly, by the groom and/or his kin. Modern-day dowry has become the property extorted from the father of the bride by the groom and his parents, and therefore cannot be considered presents given out of affection. It is an important distinction in practice that modern dowry constitutes essentially extortion while the presents of the past were given voluntarily and willingly. Thus, modern day dowry is more in line with the unidirectional flow of cash and other goods from the bride’s family to the groom’s family, whereas in the South of India the modern phenomenon of dowry is a new development. The dowry that is given in the higher caste weddings in India today, and which has permeated to the lower castes, is an entirely new phenomenon and should not be related to the traditional ideas of kanyadan and stridhan. Moreover, Vedic scholars boldly articulated that there is no reference to â€Å"dowry† in any of the Vedas or other ancient texts, thus destroying any religious sanction of the modern day practice. Nonetheless, apart from Indian society’s maintained continual religious sanctification of the modern-day dowry practice, the contemporary system has advanced due to factors such as the position of these women in the patriarchal joint family as well as their perceived subordinate position in Indian society; both of which result in a perpetual forced dependence on men and further lowers their status. In addition, the traditional custom has been warped from gifts given only at the time of marriage into a propagation of events, at any of which â€Å"dowry† is expected to be and usually is demanded. A. Cultural Shift in the Perception of the Status of Women As a result of archaic laws and evolving customs pertaining to family and property, Indian society confers power and status to males and their families; conversely, females and families with females suffer automatically from low status. However, Indian culture did not always view women is such low esteem. During the Vedic period from birth a female was treated equally with a boy. It was expected that she would be given an education and these educated girls had an effective say in the selection of their marriage partners. It wasn’t until later, beginning with the late Aryan period 300 BC that the status and role of women shifted dramatically due to increasing Brahmin influence, and women began to be viewed with decreasing status. 1. The Subordinate Position of Women in Indian Society The status of women today in Indian society is a fundamental reason why the modern-day dowry system continues to perpetuate. The change from bride-price to dowry has been identified as the major catapult in decreasing the status of Indian women. The change from bride-price to dowry was an attempt to improve the social status of a family because dowry was associated with the higher social groups. [33]As a result of this change to a hypergamous ideology where families of females are viewed lower on the status hierarchy than are families of males, a female also additionally suffers from a loss of status even within her natal family, as she is now perceived as a liability rather than as an asset. 34] From birth she is viewed as a burden because her family will have to expend valuable resources for her care and upbringing although upon marriage she will leave her family to become a member of her husband’s family, and consequently be unable to support and care for them in their old age. Further, there is the looming obligation of having to amass large quantities of money and goods so that when she is old enough to marry, her new family is sufficiently induced to take on the burden of her maintenance. For these reasons, Indians are more likely to abort a female fetus, murder female infants, and favor sons in terms of food, medical treatment, and education. The female infanticide is another effect of the dowry system in India. Medical clinics throughout the country provide amniocentesis tests to detect the gender of a fetus. [35] Those fetuses that are female are often subsequently aborted because the eventual financial burden of a woman’s dowry makes a female infant highly undesirable. Additionally, there continues to be a discrepancy in the sex ratio of the Indian population due to poor health care and nutrition for girls and women. Indeed, India is one of the few countries that have a higher population of men than women. The female-to-male ratio in India has actually decreased from 972:1000 in 1901 to 900:1000 in 2000. It is highly likely that a daughter will be fed poorly and rarely taken to a doctor when ill. Ironically, over the last century, healthcare has become widely accessible and women outnumber men in almost every other country. It would seem to follow that the higher ratio of men to women in India would mean that there should be more of a demand for women, especially in a society that considers marriage a religious obligation. However, as the tradition of dowry has grown increasingly distorted over the centuries and women are perceived as a future liability, it has led many families to prefer to have only boys. Perpetuations of customs such as dowry reduce the status of women because people view the birth of a girl with apprehension and unhappiness. Because marriage is controlled by the family groups, and a women is expected to not only obey her in-laws but also her husband, this provides for her perpetual dependence: when unmarried she is dependent on her father, after marriage she is dependent on her husband, and if widowed she is dependent on her son. Thus, due to her economic dependence and inferior social status, she suffers a great lost of self-respect, independence, and autonomy. Nonetheless, because Indian society views females as a valueless burden and because Indian marriages have essentially become business deals made for profit, Indian society implicitly sanctions the contemporary practice of dowry. Consequently, enormous pressure is placed on brides and their families, resulting in their exploitation and an increase in dowry-related violence. 2. Position of Indian Women in the Patriarchal Joint –Family The structure of Indian family life has also fostered modern development of the dowry system. The extended or joint family has prevailed in India,[36] particularly in the rural areas that constitute most of the country. Because of the dominance of the joint-family, the Hindu community is dominated by the thought that children are the property of their parents. Even after marriage, the son is expected to set a good example and obey his elders. When a woman marries in India, she moves into her husband’s home, and accordingly, she is expected to behave in a similar, if not more subservient, fashion as her husband. This provides the justification for the joint-family to assert control over the bride’s portion of the dowry, the stridhan. Thus, the new wife often finds herself at the bottom of the pecking order and is forced to bear the brunt of the labor in the house. In addition, because begetting a son is the goal of a Hindu marriage and a woman reached her highest status within the family structure in her role as a mother to a son, the family heir, the mother-in-law’s need to be in a close relationship with her son puts her in a diametrically opposed relationship with the new bride. An Indian mother’s long-term status and financial security in the joint-family depends on her son because it is he who will provide for and take of her when her husband dies. When the son marries, it is seen as a threat to her security and thus, the relationship between a daughter-in-law and mother-in-law is inherently strained because of the mother-in-law’s need to protect her source of security and power. As a result of the hierarchical structure of the joint-family, one way a mother-in-law asserts her power is via the dowry process. If she is unhappy and has not already harassed her daughter-in-law, her son will know about it, who in turn, because his loyalties lie with his mother, will harass his wife. It is ironic that the key manner that the contemporary dowry system is maintained is via these relationships between the daughters-in-law and mothers-in-law. The daughters-in-law give in and allow this system to perpetuate because they too, one day want to be and will be in the position of their mother-in-law. 134 Thus, in the absence of another source of security and livelihood, women end up supporting a system that has and continues to oppress them. Furthermore, even when women were recipients of the stridhan portion, this portion, could consist of only moveable property such as household items and jewels. These items were not considered valuable in economic terms. This is because women in India did not receive land as dowry, and land is a premium asset in a society where agriculture is the primary means of generating wealth. As a result, the inheritance of moveable property that they did receive was consequently of little material value. In the Indian joint-family, land has been the source of property and inheritance for thousands of years. As state previously, property, before the Succession Act, could only be inherited by male heirs; thus the only â€Å"inheritance† that a daughter received was her dowry. Consequently, the original concept of dowry was not an ill-intentioned one since it helped start a woman in her new home by providing amenities that would help her and her young husband in beginning a life together. Although the traditional dowry was intended to be a source of inheritance of gifts and money for the daughter, the conjugal control of a dowry interferes with the organizational power of the joint-family, especially because the new couple shares a home with the family of the groom. Given the structure of the joint-family, the dowry is of little material wealth and the Indian bride often receives little direct benefit from it. Moreover, the young couple is not free to regard the property brought by the wife as their own marital product. The conjugal estate normally comes under the control of the patriarch of the joint-family and so brides are guaranteed no control of their dowry. B. Economic Shift from the Caste System to Class Divisions within the Social Structure The institution of marriage of ancient and medieval India was most affected by the socio-political and economic changes which accompanied the establishment of British rule in India. The period of British colonialism, from the late 17th to the mid-20th century, is frequently identified as the turning point at which the dowry system developed into its modern day form. This transition to dowry represented an influential historical turn between the values of marriage as a spiritual union and marriage as an economic union. 1. Remnants from British Rule: The Impact of Capitalism One of the primary reasons why the meaning and practice of dowry has been so drastically altered is that class has replaced caste as a prominent measure of social status in modern India. The old custom has thus been transformed from a religious symbol into a vital source of income for families desperate to meet pressing social needs. [37] As a result of this transformation, the giving of dowry among Hindus is now publicly, ideologically, and morally validated even though in early times the various aspects of dowry were voluntarily performed from love and affection in accordance with the financial position of the bride’s father. With the introduction of a cash conomy into India and the post-colonial economic crisis of the 1970s, combined with the already low status of women, dowry and dowry-related murders increased, becoming a ready form of wealth procurement to be used by the groom and his family. A resulting effect was the re-definition of the social hierarchy; whereas caste formerly determined social status, class began to take precedence. Thus, the centuries-old tradition of dowry became a means for an upwardly mobile family to demonstrate their wealth and make ties among higher social groups. Instead of giving stridhan directly to the bride upon marriage, much of it began to be given to the joint-family. Moreover, the aspects of kanyadan and dakshina became entangled and came to be known as the single institution of dowry. During the period of British colonization, in order to obtain a dowry, compulsion, coercion, and force increasingly began to be used, and ultimately the majority of marriages arose from a bargaining-process. Introduction of forces such as monetization, education, and the organized sector by the British into India added to the burden on a woman’s family to improve their status. Consequently, modern dowry can be viewed as entirely the result of British rule. The British introduced a higher standard of living and a more materialistic way of life. More importantly, the British exploitation of their powerful position imposed a sense of servility, humiliation, and inferiority on the Indian people. The Indian people resented their subservience and became increasingly class conscious in their values and their way of life. Indian society became increasingly aware of the potential of money and conscious of a materialistic approach towards life. These two items coupled together, generated a demand for ready cash in addition to gifts in the marriage negotiations. Encouraged by these new cultural values of the modern world, the desire to acquire unearned wealth, under a misguided feeling that such a transaction was a blessing of God, gained legitimacy and acceptance among Hindu society. Deeply ingrained Hindu customs that emphasized moral character, honesty, and service to God ultimately became polluted by an increase in â€Å"competitive spirit, emotional compulsions, and unaccounted bribery†, values that resulted indirectly or directly by the British domination. The colonialism of India was new unnatural, element that threw the natural order out of kilter, and Indian society reacted with increased competitiveness, which ultimately revealed itself in the perversion of the old dowry custom. 2. Marriage as a Market Transaction Due to the impact of high prices on the standard of living and the longer time period over which dowry may be demanded, it has become increasingly difficult for families to spare enough money to adhere to this custom, especially given its present expectations. The amount of dowry given can either typically depend on the financial status of the bride’s family, today an element whose consideration has increasingly diminished, or on the explicit and direct demands made by the groom’s parents. It is this second and growing phenomenon that leads to the escalating dowry-related violence, and victimization of the wife and her family. Upper class families generally give ornaments, such as gold or silver, inset with costly stones, like diamonds, sapphires, or rubies. These families can also afford and do give furniture, utensils, crockery and as well as costly items such as radios, sewing machines, refrigerators, and even vehicles of transportation. Lower class families, whose income is generally less than a hundred rupees per month, give a few silver ornaments. Among these poor people, utensils and crockery are considered essential because they feel that the woman must have the kitchenware to cook food. Due to their low economic position, it is in these poorer classes that this custom has become difficult to maintain. Families will often borrow money to fulfill their desire to give more and more to their daughters. However, they then incur heavy debts that can take years to repay. Middle class families however cannot afford elaborate ornaments, and generally give ornaments of gold inset with only ordinary stones or those purely of gold. Education and an expanding economy, as well as increased government employment, have created this urban middle class. It is estimated that eighty-five percent of dowry deaths and eighty percent of dowry harassment or violence situations occur in either the middle or lower classes. Indeed, this phenomenon seems to be most prevalent in the emerging upwardly mobile middle class and the highest increases are not among the poorest but among those with middle incomes. With urbanization and pressures of a cash-based economy, dakshina is emphasized and stridhan has become less important. Dowry is seen as a replacement for the money that will be used to educate the groom so that he can then move among a higher class and later command a higher dowry. Moreover, as the groom becomes accustomed to a higher standard of living, and thus certainly have more needs for ready cash, he will come to expect that those needs will be met through dowry received upon his marriage. Furthermore, today, as opposed to Rajput times and as practiced by the Brahmins, the bride's family uses the practice of dowry to attract families of higher status and power than their own. These connections are used to enhance the status of the bride’s parents and achieve material gains. The amount of dowry that a man of a particular profession or position in life can command fluctuates just like any other market commodity. It is common knowledge that implicit price tags are attached to prospective grooms depending on their education, status, occupation, and income, as well as any other factors. For instance, men having government jobs, or being in a profession, such as CPAs and engineers, and living in cities have prestige and are considered to be in short supply, thus they can command higher dowries. Also, the higher the education of the groom and the more prestigious the profession, i. e. , doctors and lawyers, the higher the dowry demands. These potential grooms are considered such a valuable commodity that the parents of girls feel they must be competitive if they want to secure such a â€Å"commodity† for their daughter. In contrast, women are reduced to the level of chattel, to be sold or bartered away according to the whims of the men and their families. It is as if a discount sale coupon is tagged on to the brides in order to engage them in this highly competitive matrimonial market to make them more marketable. While natal families do have to bear heavy costs, for some there is some benefit in engaging in this modern dowry system. If the potential in-laws have a son who is educated, earning a salary, and moving among a wealthier group of people, the potential bride’s family may try to move their family’s position into the in-laws higher group by virtue of the daughter’s marrying into this group. Because they are outsiders and of a poorer background, they will have to offer a higher dowry to accomplish the social climb. However, once they are part of the new social group, they can demand an equally high or higher amount of dowry for their son when he marries. One might think that increasing literacy and education would reduce the effect of dowry however it has actually raised dowry demands and increased economic pressures on natal families. Families of higher-educated girls seek higher educated boys, and the higher education adds value to the boy’s worth as a market â€Å"commodity†. Thus families are hit with a dual price-tag because they not only have to pay for the higher education for their daughter, but the educated potential groom, as a more valuable commodity, can also command a higher price in the matrimonial market. Because the Indian marriage market is essentially an implicit market in bride and groom attributes, the resulting market equilibrium appears to associate a price with each match. Consequently, the amount of dowry given is often considered this equilibrium price given for a â€Å"good† match. Ironically, these are not good matches as the girl’s best interests are rarely, if ever taken into account. These marriages, rather than being the religious sacrament stipulated by the Dharmashastras, have become a commercial vehicle to fulfill materialistic needs of grooms and their families and social needs of bride’s families without ever taking into account any needs of the brides. 3. Proliferation of Events where Dowry is bestowed Dowry giving and taking in India has now come to cover many different things in different circumstances. A significant feature of dowry is that it has come to constitute an elaborate series of payments extending over a long period of time. It no longer merely means the property that a bride gets at the time of her marriage, but has been extended to include items or property given well before or long after the marriage. Furthermore, families now have more opportunities to take advantage of the dowry-giving custom. In some Indian states such as Punjab and Haryana, a pre-engagement ceremony, referred to as Thaka has become prominent. The Thaka ceremony affirms the relationship established between two families and signifies that negotiations have been initiated for a matrimonial alliance. The potential bride’s parents, along with a few close relatives, visit the home of the man to whom they expect their daughter will be shortly engaged. 185 They take plenty of sweets and fruits, and cash for the potential groom-to-be, as well as for his parents and close relatives. 186 If there is no Thaka ceremony, the first series of payments commence with the engagement ceremony and conclude with the departure of the bride to her matrimonial home. In the Hindu community, there is a formal engagement ceremony before the marriage here goods (â€Å"gifts†) are customarily given. If there are any festivals or holidays between the Thaka ceremony or engagement ceremony and the actual wedding, the bride’s parents will also send gifts to the groom’s parents. The actual day of marriage is also an obvious time when gifts will be asked for and given. Today, the arrival of the bride in her new home, a day that in ancient Indian times was a blessing for the groomâ₠¬â„¢s family to welcome their bow or daughter-in-law, today constitutes yet another situation where the bride will be expected to arrive bearing gifts. The second series of payments can persist long after the marriage, sometimes continuing for months, even years after. At the very least, throughout the first year of marriage, festive and religious holidays mark situations where the bride’s parents feel obligated to send presents, regardless of whether it is demanded by the groom’s parents. [38] Especially if the girl is pregnant, the groom’s family will also demand some gift or payment. This sending of presents is not done out of affection, but for fear of social condemnation that good dowry was not given, or out of fear that their daughter may be harassed and sent back to her natal home. In addition, these dowry demands not only place pressure on a new bride and her parents, but can also involve her entire extended family. [39] C. Violent Derailment of the Traditional Dowry System The abuse of the custom of dowry has eroded and aborted the original meaningful function of traditional dowry, i. e. , kanyadan, and the giving of stridhan and dakshina. The once intended safety net for the bride and the gift of affection for the groom has corrupted into a price-tag for the groom and a noose for the bride. No longer merely a system of giving voluntary gifts, the modern dowry system has become Indian society’s primary method for manipulating one’s family status and wealth. It is largely distinguished from the older traditional dowry system by the presence of compulsion, which is largely due to the fierce competition in the marriage market. Today, the underlying motivation behind the giving of dowry is the need of the bride’s family to improve their family standing or status. Stridhan, the classical notion prescribing a woman’s marriage wealth, has been violated in four respects in contemporary Indian society. First, any item that is transferred as stridhan along with the bride at the time of marriage, and in ancient times was given directly to her, may now be taken into sole possession by the groom and his family. Second, the groom’s parents use the stridhan portion brought by their daughter-in-law, to enhance the dowry given in acquiring husbands for their own daughters, if they have any, or for any other conceivable purpose. Third, dowry demands continue even after the marriage and can be perpetuated indefinitely, thus always being a ready source of cash and the latest materialistic goods. Finally, spouting religious meaning behind this taking of dowry, the groom’s family justify their demands; however the cash transaction requested by and ultimately given to the groom’s parents is not mentioned anywhere in the traditional Brahman dictum. In earlier times a women was not allowed to inherit property, thus the stridhan portion was meant to provide her with a share of her parental wealth. Thus â€Å"dowry† was a social means of transferring the natural rights of inheritance to a daughter via the marriage process. Thus, the original underlying motivation was to provide the bride with a pre-mortem inheritance and to overcome the restrictions of the early Succession laws. However, the Succession Act of 1956 decreed that women were entitled to inherit equally along with their brothers, thus allowing them to also inherit property. It recognized an equal right of Indian women to inherit property and for the 1st time conferred absolute ownership to her. Due to this legislation, the traditional reasons underlying the giving of stridhan, to safeguard the woman and her economic well-being, have ceased to exist. Hereinafter, a model of dowry deaths is discussed whereby various concepts pertaining to victimization of women for dowry are discussed. The model falls into two parts, the first of which, influenced by socio-cultural and victimological concepts, attempts to identify the kind of marriage arrangements that lead to a potential problem. These are groups of variables 1-9 in Figure 1. The second part of the model is influenced by routine activity and rational choice perspectives, and attempts to deal with the more dynamic aspects of the phenomenon after marriage (groups 10-14). Groups 1 and 2 cover the socio-cultural factors (patriarchal traditional society; dowry system) that provide the context for the development of dowry problems. Dowry problems frequently arise within urban, middle class families with conservative outlooks. Groups 3,4, 5 and 6 concern the kinds of family and the needs of both the husband's and wife's families before the marriage. Economic needs are important for both families. The husband's family may be trying to obtain resources through the dowry, by capitalizing on the husband's earning power. The wife's family may be trying to protect resources. The relative status of the families is also relevant, with the husband's family generally being more influential. Groups 7 and 8 deal with the personal characteristics of the wife and the husband. Wives are more likely to be victimized if they are submissive, young and less educated. Husbands are more likely to be aggressors, or to fall in with their parent's aggression, if they are weak and emotionally dependent. Husbands who are older and better educated than their wives are more likely to dominate their spouses and commit acts of violence against them. The marriage contract (Group 9) attempts to reconcile the needs of the husband's and wife's families. The kind of arrangements that appear to lead to trouble include, for example, a large dowry not paid on full at the time of the marriage and dowries with non-cash items over which disagreements arise about the quality of the goods supplied. Misunderstandings are likely to be greater if the families do not know each other well and have used a middleman to arrange to contract Group 10 deals with the living situation after marriage. In the joint family system, quarrels may center around the wife's insufficient dowry especially when the wife is unemployed and not well enough trained in housework to satisfy the husband's family. As marriages are generally arranged, the chances of incompatibility between the husband and wife are high and the probability of disputes correspondingly great. The bride's parents will generally be unsupportive because of the prevailing belief that once a girl is married her parents should not interfere in her new life, even if she comes to them for help. Even where they are supportive, they cannot come quickly to help her if they live at a distance. The risk of physical abuse is increased when the husband's family lives in a quiet neighborhood or if there are no neighbors. That bride burning is basically an urban phenomenon may be partly due to the busy life in cities neighbors tend to have little time to get involved in each other's affairs. The busy routines of urban dwellers thus leaves unguarded the defenseless young bride. Groups 11 and 12 deal with the reactions of the husband and wife after marriage. The wife's personality will affect her reaction to her marital problems. She might tolerate the harassment and mistreatment so as not to bring any shame on her parents. Since she is dependent on her husband both emotionally and economically she may completely loose confidence in herself. The fact that in many cases the husband has not chosen the wife may cause him much unhappiness because he finds her unattractive or incompatible with his friends. These feelings of frustration may fuel his demands that the wife get more money from her parents. Groups 13 and 14 deal with the husband's and wife's decision making. If pressures upon the wife became intolerable she may decide to take matters into her own hands and end her life. The husband on the other hand, as a result of dissatisfaction at work and in his married life, may have affairs with other women, get into other activities like gambling and take to alcohol or drugs. He may choose to deal with his difficulties and frustrations by plotting to kill his wife. This decision will be influenced by a perceived low risk of detection, the availability of an easy method of killing his wife, and the possibility of solving his problems by marrying some other woman with a better dowry settlement. Fig. 1 A Model of Dowry Deaths[40] Gropu Group 1 G G Group 2 Group 3 Group 4 Group 5 Group 6 Group 7 Group 9 Group 8 Group 11 Group 10 Group 12 Group Group 13 Group 14 Marriage in India, regarded as the alliance of two families, is a huge turning point in an individual’s life and should be a joyous and blessed occasion. Yet there is nothing to prevent the groom and his family from making initial exorbitant demands, continual demands, or using the dowry money as they do not see fit, nor do previous fulfilled demands guarantee that future demands will not be made. As a result, dowry deaths are a consequence of the intense competitive expansion of capitalism within an intricate web of hierarchical relations, resulting in a widening gap between the rich and the poor, intensified gender stratification, and India’s subordinate status in the world market. In this extremely competitive environment, dowry demands are one method of attempting upward mobility. The modern-day dowry system, as a perverted version of the past, leads to the impoverishment of the bride’s family, allows for the materialistic enrichment of the groom’s family, values the groom as a market commodity, and most importantly, rarely buys security and peace for the bride. Chapter 4 ILLEGALITY OF PRACTICE: INDIA’S POSITIVE LAWS On May 20, 1961, the Parliament of the Central Government of India recognized that the practice of giving and taking dowry was â€Å"evil† especially to the extent that it involved money or goods. 41] For that reason, they enacted the Dowry Prohibition Act (â€Å"the Act†) with the sole objective of eradicating the giving or taking of dowry. [42] The Indian Parliament took further steps, by amending the Indian Penal Code (â€Å"IPC†) in 1983 and again in 1986 with the Indian Evidence Act (â€Å"IEA†), and the Code of Criminal Procedure (â€Å"CCP†), to reduce the dowry murder phenomenon by criminalizing dowry related violence against women. A. The Dowry Prohibition Act of 1961 The Act does not seek to completely abolish the custom of giving gifts upon marriage but to restore the dowry system to its original traditional form and purposes. Accordingly, the statutory definitions do not include the gratuitous stridhan portion of dowry; however, these gifts must be given at the time of the marriage and not before or after. Although the generally accepted definition of dowry is the â€Å"property that a girl brings with her at the time of marriage,† the 1961 Act defined the offense of giving or taking ‘dowry’ as â€Å"including any property or valuable security given or agreed to be given, at or before the marriage as consideration for the marriage†¦Ã¢â‚¬ [43]This language, however, proved to be problematic as an effective method of prohibiting dowry. For example, in the original definition clause, the Act stated that â€Å"any present given or taken by either party, either party’s parents or by any other person directly at the time of marriage was not dowry unless it was taken as consideration for the marriage. †[44] The statute, as worded, only prohibited exchanges that were given or agreed to be given as consideration, and did not include any gifts, in the form of cash, ornaments, clothes, or other articles, given at the time of a marriage to either party. Consequently, the definition of dowry was narrowed, and any gifts given before or upon and any cash/expenditures made after the marriage, were excluded and could not be violations of the Act. As evidence of this gap in coverage, the Delhi High Court, ruled in Madan Lal Ors v. Amar Nath[45], that â€Å"property may pass hands subsequent to marriage, even months or years after it, merely to save the marriage from being broken†¦or to save the wife from harassment, Given the ineffectiveness of the language and the inadequacy of the 1961 law in decreasing the dowry phenomenon as well as in countering the increasing violence and harassment inflicted upon young women, the women’s movement in India campaigned for law reform. As a result, the Indian legislature enacted amendments in 1984 and 1986 with the intention of making the law more stringent and, therefore more effective. The 1984 amendment broadened the scope of the original act by substituting the words â€Å"in connection with the marriage† for the original â€Å"as consideration for marriage. † The definition was broadened again in 1986 to include presents given â€Å"any time after the marriage† within the definition of dowry. Furthermore, the 1986 amendment raised the minimum punishment for taking or abetting the taking of dowry to five years and a fine of 15,000 rupees. Additionally, it shifted the burden of proving that there was no demand for dowry to the person who takes or abets in the taking of dowry, made punishable by imprisonment, for a term of six months to five years, or alternatively, with a fine of 15,000 rupees, any advertisement which related to the offering of property in consideration for marriage was made punishable by imprisonment, and made bail unavailable in dowry cases. 46] As a result of the 1984 and 1986 amendments, the current Act outlaws the giving, taking, or demanding of dowry, which it defines as any property or valuable security given or agreed to be at, before, or after the marriage in connection with the marriage. [47] Thus, the Act provides greater room for the exercise of judicial discretion in declaring a larger range of â€Å"giving† as dowry. Nonetheless, even g iven the expansion of the definition of dowry, the current Act has been widely criticized for being ridden with â€Å"legal loopholes. For example, the Act prohibits dowry but allows the giving of gifts at the time of the marriage. Moreover, the definitions do not clearly define the terms â€Å"consideration,† â€Å"gift,† or â€Å"present,† making it difficult to determine what constitutes consideration and how that differs from a gift. Matters are further complicated by the Act’s use of the word â€Å"dowry† to describe not only what the bride’s parents give to the groom or to their daughters-in-laws but also what the groom’s parents give to the bride and their sons-in-laws. Consequently, the charge of â€Å"dowry† can be easily avoided by offering the items or cash carefully as a gift so as not to invoke any characterization of the property as compensation. To counteract the ambiguity of this language, yet not proscribe the giving of gifts altogether, some have suggested imposing a limit on the aggregate value of such gifts. [48] However, others have agued that this is just as impractical for essentially the same reason that the Act remains unenforceable: corruption is the norm. 225 As a result of the vagueness and under-inclusive nature of the statutory language, the Act still remains argely ineffective. Thus, Indian families can continue to demand dowry money without fear of reprisal. In practice, states may amend the statute if they wish, without restriction for instance by including explanations and definitions for certain terms in their local version of the statute. For example, the state of Haryana amended the Act by widening the definition of dowry. The definition included any marriage expenses incurred directly or indirectly at or before the marriage or in connection with any of the Thaka, Sagai, Tikka, Shagan, and Milni ceremonies. 49] Moreover, unlike the federal act, any gifts to either party in the form of cash, ornaments, clothes or other articles are also considered dowry. [50] Further many state statutes, unlike the Act, have imposed upper limits on the amount of marriage expenses and presents that are allowed to be given. Haryana further prohibited any marriage expenses that were greater than five thousand rupees, restricted the marriage party to twenty-five members and the band to eleven members. Finally, while states have the power to amend, it should also be noted that the states are not required to incorporate any federal amendments made to the Act; For example, when federal amendments were added to the Act in 1984, Haryana did not incorporate these into its state act. B. Additional Corresponding Legislation In 1983, the Indian Penal Code, the Indian Evidence Act, and the Indian Criminal Procedure Code were changed simultaneously to deal more effectively not only with dowry-related deaths, but also with cases of cruelty against married women. The 1986 Amendment to the Act also proposed the new offence of â€Å"dowry death† to be created in the Indian Penal Code as well as any other corresponding legislation. 1. Indian Penal Code In 1983, Parliament amended the Indian Penal Code to outlaw dowry related cruelty by the husband or his relatives by enacting  § 498-A as part of the Criminal Law Act (â€Å"Criminal Act†). [51] The Criminal Act created the offense of cruelty, and provided for the punishment of a husband or his relatives if they harass a woman in order to coerce her to meet any unlawful demand for property. Additionally,  §306 created the offense of â€Å"abetment to suicide† hich provided that anyone who instigates another to commit suicide will be liable for abetting the commission of a suicide when the suicide results from such instigation. Further, in 1986, a new offense of â€Å"dowry death† was created under IPC  § 304-B[52], allowing for an irrefutable presumption previousl y unknown to Indian jurisprudence. It provides that when a woman’s death occurs under questionable circumstances and it is proved that she was subjected to dowry-related cruelty or harassment, it shall be presumed that the husband or any of his relatives committed the offense of dowry death and caused her death. Moreover, it stated that the minimum punishment for committing dowry death was imprisonment of a minimum of 7 years to life. The Judicial Response The attitude of the judiciary at the apex level has -been in favor of women, the crux of which can be condensed to Justice Mohan's judgment in Panniben vs. State of Maharashtra:[53] â€Å"Every time a case relating to dowry death comes up it causes ripples in the pool of conscience of this court. Nothing can be more barbarous, nothing could be more heinous than this sort of a crime †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ † 2. Indian Evidence Act Corresponding to IPC  § 306 via the Criminal Act, the Indian Evidence Act already contained provision 113-A[54] that raised a presumption of an abetment to suicide against the husband or his relatives if the wife commits suicide within a period of seven years and if there is evidence that she had been subjected to cruelty as defined in IPC  § 498-A. However, in 1986, the IEA was further amended with  § 113-Bto allow for the corresponding IPC provision of  § 304-B.  §113-B creates the presumption of dowry death where a women has been subjected to cruelty or harassment for dowry soon before her marriage. The 1983 Amendment Act also inserted Section 113-A in the Indian Evidence Act which raises presumption as to abetment of suicide by a married woman. It lays down that when the question is whether commission of suicide by a woman had been abetted by her husband or any relative of her husband, and it is shown that she had committed suicide within a period of seven years of marriage from the date of her marriage, that her husband or such, relative of her husband had subjected her to cruelty, the court